12-5-1: Learning Objectives ​

In an internal combustion engine, for example, isooctane reacts with oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water:

$$2 \mathrm{C}_{8} \mathrm{H}_{18}(\mathrm{l})+25 \mathrm{O}_{2}(\mathrm{~g}) \longrightarrow 16 \mathrm{CO}_{2}(\mathrm{~g})+18 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}(\mathrm{g})$$

For this reaction to occur in a single step, 25 dioxygen molecules and 2 isooctane molecules would have to collide simultaneously and be converted to 34 molecules of product, which is very unlikely. It is more likely that a complex series of reactions takes place in a stepwise fashion. Each individual reaction, which is called an elementary reaction, involves one, two, or (rarely) three atoms, molecules, or ions. The overall sequence of elementary reactions is the mechanism of the reaction. The sum of the individual steps, or elementary reactions, in the mechanism must give the balanced chemical equation for the overall reaction.

The overall sequence of elementary reactions is the mechanism of the reaction.

12-5-2: Molecularity and the Rate-Determining Step ​

To demonstrate how the analysis of elementary reactions helps us determine the overall reaction mechanism, we will examine the much simpler reaction of carbon monoxide with nitrogen dioxide.

$$\mathrm{2CO + 2NO_2 \rightarrow 2CO_2 + N_2O_4}$$

From the balanced chemical equation, one might expect the reaction to occur via a collision of one molecule of $\mathrm{NO}_{2}$ with a molecule of $\mathrm{CO}$ that results in the transfer of an oxygen atom from nitrogen to carbon. The experimentally determined rate law for the reaction, however, is as follows:

$$\text { rate }=k\left[\mathrm{NO}_{2}\right]^{2}$$

The fact that the reaction is second order in $\left[\mathrm{NO}_{2}\right]$ and independent of $[\mathrm{CO}]$ tells us that it does not occur by the simple collision model outlined previously. If it did, its predicted rate law would be

$$\text { rate }=k\left[\mathrm{NO}_{2}\right][\mathrm{CO}] .$$

The following two-step mechanism is consistent with the rate law if step 1 is much slower than step 2:

15-2-1: Two-Step Mechanism ​

According to this mechanism, the overall reaction occurs in two steps, or elementary reactions. Summing steps 1 and 2 and canceling on both sides of the equation gives the overall balanced chemical equation for the reaction. The $\mathrm{NO_3}$ molecule is intermediate in the reaction, a species that does not appear in the balanced chemical equation for the overall reaction. It is formed as a product of the first step but is consumed in the second step.

The sum of the elementary reactions in a reaction mechanism must give the overall balanced chemical equation of the reaction.

12-5-3: Using Molecularity to Describe a Rate Law ​

The molecularity of an elementary reaction is the number of molecules that collide during that step in the mechanism. If there is only a single reactant molecule in an elementary reaction, that step is designated as unimolecular; if there are two reactant molecules, it is bimolecular; and if there are three reactant molecules (a relatively rare situation), it is termolecular. Elementary reactions that involve the simultaneous collision of more than three molecules are highly improbable and have never been observed experimentally. (To understand why, try to make three or more marbles or pool balls collide with one another simultaneously!)

Writing the rate law for an elementary reaction is straightforward because we know how many molecules must collide simultaneously for the elementary reaction to occur; hence the order of the elementary reaction is the same as its molecularity (Table 14.6.1). In contrast, the rate law for the reaction cannot be determined from the balanced chemical equation for the overall reaction. The general rate law for a unimolecular elementary reaction ( $\mathrm{A} \rightarrow$ products) is

$$\text { rate }=k[A] .$$

For bimolecular reactions, the reaction rate depends on the number of collisions per unit time, which is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants, as shown in Figure 14.6.1 For a bimolecular elementary reaction of the form $\mathrm{A}+\mathrm{B} \rightarrow$ products, the general rate law is

$$\text { rate }=k[A][B] .$$

For elementary reactions, the order of the elementary reaction is the same as its molecularity. In contrast, the rate law cannot be determined from the balanced chemical equation for the overall reaction (unless it is a single step mechanism and is therefore also an elementary step).

12-5-4: Identifying the Rate-Determining Step ​

Note the important difference between writing rate laws for elementary reactions and the balanced chemical equation of the overall reaction. Because the balanced chemical equation does not necessarily reveal the individual elementary reactions by which the reaction occurs, we cannot obtain the rate law for a reaction from the overall balanced chemical equation alone. In fact, it is the rate law for the slowest overall reaction, which is the same as the rate law for the slowest step in the reaction mechanism, the ratedetermining step, that must give the experimentally determined rate law for the overall reaction.This statement is true if one step is substantially slower than all the others, typically by a factor of 10 or more. If two or more slow steps have comparable rates, the experimentally determined rate laws can become complex. Our discussion is limited to reactions in which one step can be identified as being substantially slower than any other. The reason for this is that any process that occurs through a sequence of steps can take place no faster than the slowest step in the sequence. In an automotive assembly line, for example, a component cannot be used faster than it is produced. Similarly, blood pressure is regulated by the flow of blood through the smallest passages, the capillaries. Because movement through capillaries constitutes the rate-determining step in blood flow, blood pressure can be regulated by medications that cause the capillaries to contract or dilate. A chemical reaction that occurs via a series of elementary reactions can take place no faster than the slowest step in the series of reactions.

Look at the rate laws for each elementary reaction in the example as well as for the overall reaction.

Rate laws for each elementary reaction in our example as well as for the overall reaction

The experimentally determined rate law for the reaction of $\mathrm{NO}_{2}$ with $C O$ is the same as the predicted rate law for step 1 . This tells us that the first elementary reaction is the rate-determining step, so $k$ for the overall reaction must equal $k_{1}$. That is, $\mathrm{NO}_{3}$ is formed slowly in step 1, but once it is formed, it reacts very rapidly with CO in step 2.

Sometimes chemists are able to propose two or more mechanisms that are consistent with the available data. If a proposed mechanism predicts the wrong experimental rate law, however, the mechanism must be incorrect.

12-5-4-1: Example-A Reaction with an Intermediate ​

In an alternative mechanism for the reaction of $\mathrm{NO}_{2}$ with $\mathrm{CO}$ with $\mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{4}$ appearing as an intermediate.

alternative mechanism for the reaction of $\mathrm{NO}_{2}$ with $\mathrm{CO}$ with $\mathrm{N}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{4}$ appearing as an intermediate.

Write the rate law for each elementary reaction. Is this mechanism consistent with the experimentally determined rate law (rate $=\mathrm{k[{NO}_{2}]^{2}t}$)

Given: elementary reactions Asked for: rate law for each elementary reaction and overall rate law

Strategy ​

• Determine the rate law for each elementary reaction in the reaction.

• Determine which rate law corresponds to the experimentally determined rate law for the reaction. This rate law is the one for the rate-determining step.

Solution ​

Question ​

At $500 \mathrm{~K}$ in the presence of a copper surface, ethanol decomposes according to the equation

$$\mathrm{C}_2 \mathrm{H}_5 \mathrm{OH}(\mathrm{g}) \longrightarrow \mathrm{CH}_3 \mathrm{CHO}(g)+\mathrm{H}_2(g)$$

The pressure of $\mathrm{C}_2 \mathrm{H}_5 \mathrm{OH}$ was measured as a function of time and the following data were obtained:

Since the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the concentration of gas, we can express the rate law for a gaseous reaction in terms of partial pressures. Using the above data, deduce the rate law, the integrated rate law, and the value of the rate constant, all in terms of pressure units in atm and time in seconds. Predict the pressure of $\mathrm{C}_2 \mathrm{H}_5 \mathrm{OH}$ after $900 . \mathrm{s}$ from the start of the reaction. (Hint: To determine the order of the reaction with respect to $\mathrm{C}_2 \mathrm{H}_5 \mathrm{OH}$, compare how the pressure of $\mathrm{C}_2 \mathrm{H}_5 \mathrm{OH}$ decreases with each time listing.)

Solution ​

Due to the fact that the graph of $\mathrm{p}\left[\mathrm{O}_2\right]$ over time is showing $\mathrm{R}^2$ value of 1 we know we have a zero-order reaction. Therefore:

$$\begin{aligned} & \mathrm{k}=\frac{\mathrm{p}_0\left[\mathrm{C}_2 \mathrm{H}_5 \mathrm{OH}\right]-\mathrm{p}\left[\mathrm{C}_2 \mathrm{H}_5 \mathrm{OH}\right]}{\mathrm{t}}=\frac{250 \text { torr }-185 \text { torr }}{500 \mathrm{~s}}=0.13 \text { torr s }^{-1} \\ & \mathrm{k}=0.13 \text { torr s } \mathrm{s}^{-1} \times \frac{1 \mathrm{~atm}}{760 \text { torr }}=1.71 \times 10^{-4} \mathrm{~atm} \mathrm{~s}^{-1} \\ & \text { rate }=\mathbf{k} \\ & \mathrm{p}\left(\mathrm{C}_2 \mathrm{H}_5 \mathrm{OH}\right)=-\mathrm{kt}+\mathrm{p}_0\left(\mathrm{C}_2 \mathrm{H}_5 \mathrm{OH}\right) \\ & \mathrm{p}\left(\mathrm{C}_2 \mathrm{H}_5 \mathrm{OH}\right)=-\left(1.71 \times 10^{-4} \mathrm{~atm} \mathrm{~s}^{-1}\right) \times 900 \mathrm{~s}+0.33 \mathrm{~atm} \\ & \mathrm{p}\left(\mathrm{C}_2 \mathrm{H}_5 \mathrm{OH}\right)=0.176 \mathrm{~atm} \mathrm{~s}^{-1} \\ & \end{aligned}$$

Question ​

$$2 \mathrm{~N}_2 \mathrm{O}_5(g) \rightarrow 4 \mathrm{NO}_2(g)+\mathrm{O}_2(g)$$

The decomposition of $\mathrm{N}_2 \mathrm{O}_5(g)$ is represented by the equation above. A sample of $\mathrm{N}_2 \mathrm{O}_5(g)$ is monitored as it decomposes, and the concentration of $\mathrm{N}_2 \mathrm{O}_5$ as a function of time is recorded. The results are shown in the table below.

Calculate the average rate of the reaction between $50.0$ and $75.0$ seconds.

Solution ​

$$a \mathrm{~A}+b \mathrm{~B} \rightarrow c \mathrm{C}+d \mathrm{D}$$

the rate of reaction is defined as

$$\color{cyan}\text { rate }=-\frac{1}{a} \frac{\Delta[\mathrm{A}]}{\Delta t}=-\frac{1}{b} \frac{\Delta[\mathrm{B}]}{\Delta t}=+\frac{1}{c} \frac{\Delta[\mathrm{C}]}{\Delta t}=+\frac{1}{d} \frac{\Delta[\mathrm{D}]}{\Delta t}$$

Notice that the rate of change in concentration of each species is divided by its coefficient from the balanced chemical equation ( $a$, $b, c$, or $d$ ). This ensures that the calculated reaction rate is the same no matter which reactant or product is monitored for changes in concentration. In this case, the monitored species was $\mathrm{N}_2 \mathrm{O}_5$. With that in mind, let's write the reaction rate in terms of the rate of change in concentration of $\mathrm{N}_2 \mathrm{O}_5$ :

$$\text { rate }=-\frac{1}{2} \frac{\Delta\left[\mathrm{N}_2 \mathrm{O}_5\right]}{\Delta t}$$

Since the coefficient for $\mathrm{N}_2 \mathrm{O}_5$ in the balanced equation is 2 , we divided the rate of change in concentration of $\mathrm{N}_2 \mathrm{O}_5$ by 2 . Additionally, since $\mathrm{N}_2 \mathrm{O}_5$ is being consumed in the reaction, we included a negative sign in front of the expression.

Now, let's plug in the information from the table to calculate the average reaction rate between $50.0$ and $75.0$ seconds:

$$\begin{aligned} \text { rate } & =-\frac{1}{2} \frac{(0.515 M-0.642 M)}{(75.0 \mathrm{~s}-50.0 \mathrm{~s})} \\ & =2.54 \times 10^{-3} M \mathrm{~s}^{-1} \end{aligned}$$

So, the average rate of the reaction between $50.0$ and $75.0$ seconds is $\bold{2.54 \times 10^{-3} \mathrm{M} \mathrm{s}^{-1}}$.

Question ​

The rate law for a particular reaction is rate $=k[\mathrm{XY}]^2$. In an experiment, the initial rate of the reaction is determined to be $0.16 \mathrm{~mol} /(\mathrm{L} \cdot \mathrm{s})$ when the initial concentration of $\mathrm{XY}$ is $0.40 \mathrm{~mol} / \mathrm{L}$.

• What is the value of the rate constant, $k$, for the reaction?
  • $0.10 \mathrm{~L} /(\mathrm{mol} \cdot \mathrm{s})$
  • $0.40 \mathrm{~L} /(\mathrm{mol} \cdot \mathrm{s})$
  • $1.0 \mathrm{~L} /(\mathrm{mol} \cdot \mathrm{s})$
  • $2.5 \mathrm{~L} /(\mathrm{mol} \cdot \mathrm{s})$

Solution ​

lo tind the value of the rate constant for the reaction, let's first solve the rate law for $k$ :

$$k=\frac{\text { rate }}{[\mathrm{XY}]^2}$$

Next, let's plug in the initial rate and concentration given in the text:

$$\begin{aligned} k & =\frac{0.16 \mathrm{~mol} /(\mathrm{L} \cdot \mathrm{s})}{(0.40 \mathrm{~mol} / \mathrm{L})^2} \\ & =\frac{0.16 \mathrm{~mol} /(\mathrm{L} \cdot \mathrm{s})}{0.16 \mathrm{~mol}^2 / \mathrm{L}^2} \\ & =1.0 \mathrm{~L} /(\mathrm{mol} \cdot \mathrm{s}) \end{aligned}$$

So, the value of the rate constant for the reaction is $1.0 \mathrm{~L} /(\mathrm{mol} \cdot \mathrm{s})$

Question ​

$$2 \mathrm{X}(g)+2 \mathrm{Y}(g) \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}(g)+2 \mathrm{R}(g)$$

The reaction represented above is found to be second order with respect to $\mathrm{X}$ and first order with respect to $\mathrm{Y}$.

What happens to the rate of the reaction when $[\mathrm{X}]$ is halved and $[\mathrm{Y}]$ is doubled?

• It increases by a factor of 4.
• It decreases by a factor of 2.
• It decreases by a factor of 4.
• It does not change.

Solution ​

To solve this problem, let's first write out the rate law for the reaction. According to the text, the reaction is second order with respect to $\mathrm{X}$ and first order with respect to $\mathrm{Y}$, so the rate law is rate $=k[\mathrm{X}]^2[\mathrm{Y}]$

Now, let's think about how the rate changes when $[\mathrm{X}]$ is halved and $[\mathrm{Y}]$ is doubled. Since $[\mathrm{X}]$ is raised to the second power in the rate law, halving $[\mathrm{X}]$ decreases the reaction rate by a factor of 4 . Similarly, since $[\mathrm{Y}]$ is raised to the first power, doubling $[\mathrm{Y}]$ increases the reaction rate by a factor of 2 . Combined, these changes result in the reaction rate decreasing by a factor of 2 overall. So, when $[\mathrm{X}]$ is halved and $[\mathrm{Y}]$ is doubled, the rate of the reaction decreases by a factor of 2 .

Chapter 1: Everything Changes ​

1.1: The Historic Timelines ​

• 1903: Wright bros, invented the airplane.

• 1969: Armstrong walks on the moon.

• 2004: SpaceX Falcon 9 lands upright.

• 2015: Electreic plane crosses English Channel

• 20xx: Google Live goes online.

• Boeing 777, commercial airline airplanes normally cost approximately $\$ 200,000,000,000$ for a singular aircraft.

1.2: Analytical Engne ​

A mechanical computing device, was a special-purpose machine designed to tabulate logarithms and trigonometric functions by evaluating finite differences to create approximating polynomials.

1.3: Ada Lovelace ​

It tok the powerful insights of a mathematicial named Ada Lovelace to realize the true potentilal of the analytical engine. She was the first person to recognize that the machine could be used for more than pure calculations. She developed the first algorithm for the engine. It was the very first example of computer programming.

1.4: Information Technology is for People ​

• Information technology (IT): the study, design, development, implementation, support, and management of computer-baed information systems, particularly software hardware.
  • People are the most important component in an information system because it is only a human who can conceive information from data. Computer system is only a machinery device and human is expected to operate towards aspects on how to perform, what to perform, what to outcome.
• End-users (people) are what make computers start.
• Attitude will be the defining factor in your success when it comes to computer competency.
• Best practice: a management process, technique, or method that is most effective at arriving at desired outcome or better outcome than any other process, technique, or method.
  • The best and effective way of practice is through persistent and consistent training and reviewing.

1.5: Moore's Law ​

• Gordon Moore: One of the founding fathers of the Intel.
• Computer power doubles every eighteen months.
  • This essentially means that, if a business purchases a computer today, in eighteen months there will be a computer available that is twice as fast.
• Being a Leader vs. Follower controversy

1.6: The Cuff Smartwatch? ​

US rapper/producer/entrepreneur Will.i.Am announced his foray into the world of wearable tech in 2014, proclaiming to have created a device so life-changing and futuristic it'd blow our archaic mind.

• Wikipedia smartwatch reference

1.7: Types of Computer ​

• Mainframe: Banks, Tech Companies
• Midrange: Small to Mid-sized business, not as powerful.
• Microcomputer: Laptops, Desktops, Tablet & Handled.

1.8: What is System Software? ​

• System software vs. Operating system

• System software vs. Application software

• Operating system: Manages resources. Responsible for reading and writing data.

• Graphical User Interface (GUI) & Command line interface.

  • The level of an operational system layers by interface visibility.

    • mermaid

      graph LR;
      a[GUI] --> b[Application software];
      b --> c[Operating system];
      c --> d[System software];
      d --> e[CLI]

      graph LR;
      a[GUI] --> b[Application software];
      b --> c[Operating system];
      c --> d[System software];
      d --> e[CLI]

      1
      2
      3
      4
      5
      

1.9: Operating Systems/Platforms ​

• A collection of computer programs that work together to manage hardware and software to ensure that they are working properly.
  • Memory allocation
  • Administer input and output of information
  • File management
• Platform (OS): Microsoft Windows, macOS, iOS, Linux, UNIX.

2.0: Processes/Multitasking ​

• Process: Any task a computer performs.
• Multitasking: the execution of multiple processes over a certain period of time.

2.1: Memory/Disk management ​

• Operating systems: Cache, random access memory (ram), registers, virtual memory.

• Primary storage vs. Secondary Storage: RAM, hard drive, file allocation table (FAT).

  • The table of contents of a hard drive, or the file system directory structure of a system.

  • Primary storage is accessed randomly which indicating the storage is only temporary without preserved.

  • Secondary storage is the permanent storage on a specific device while user information is stored on the machine within the physical drive storage.

2.2: Business Computing Software ​

• Software suite: Spreadsheets, word processors, database, and presentation software (aka application suite or productivity suite).

  • Sharing information between these applications is te mot important aspect of a software suite.

• Hot keys/shortcuts: Ctrl+ C & Ctrl + V on Windows; Command+ C & Command + V on Windows.

• Object linking and embedding (OLE) (Static)

  • In static linking, the system linker copies the dependencies into the final executable. At the time of linking an external library, the linker finds all dependencies that are defined in that library. And it replaces them with the corresponding functions from the library to resolve dependencies in our code. Afterward, the linker generates the final executable file that we can execute on the underlying machine.

    For example, let’s say our application calls the function print() from an external library named Library. The assembler generates the object file with all native symbols resolved to their memory addresses. The external reference print() cannot be resolved. The linker loads this library and finds the definition of print() in it. Then, it maps to print() to a memory location and thus resolves the dependency:

    

    So, a statically linked file contains our program’s code as well as the code of all the libraries it invokes. Since we copy complete libraries, we need space on both the disk and in the main memory because the resulting file may be very large.

• Object linking (Dynamic)

  • In dynamic linking, we copy the names of the external libraries into our final executable as unresolved symbols. We do the actual linking of these unresolved symbols only at runtime. How? When encountering an unresolved symbol, we query RAM for it. If the corresponding library isn’t loaded, the operating system loads it in the memory. So, the operating system performs dynamic linking for us by resolving each external symbol on the first muss. As a result, we load only a single copy of a library in memory and all processes use it.

Chapter 10: Business Websites ​

10.1: Business Website Alternative ​

• Web development platforms (WDP): Website creation programs that help non-web developers develop a website for a relatively low price.
  • Web.com, Wix.com, Squarespace.com
  • A great option for business owners
  • Search Engine Optimization

10.2: Early Website Technology ​

• Who created Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)?
• HTML is platform-neutral
• What happens when you use the internet:
  • You don't visit websites, websites visit you
  • Copies of request kept in client's cache

graph LR
A[You click on hyperlink] --> B[Web server ses HTTP to send copy of request to client]

graph LR
A[You click on hyperlink] --> B[Web server ses HTTP to send copy of request to client]

10.3: Hypertext Markup Language ​

• The principal programming language for browsers
• Elements: HTML represented in the form of tags that are enclosed by brackets: </>
• <meta></meta>: Used to help search engines
  • Will include info like web page's author, descriptions, and keywords
  • Called meta keywords or meta-words.
• Link element: <a href="www.youtube.com">Youtube</a>
• Image element: <img src="meadow.gif" alt="meadow"></img>
• JavaScript: A client-side programming language used to build websites
  • Requires a Java-enabled browser to work
  • Ex: Countdown timer

10.4: Websites Styles & Categories ​

• Website categories: Personal, Commercial, Governmental, and intranet
  • Static Website (AKA Brochure websites): Content typically designed with HTML; never changes
  • Dynamic Websites: Generate web pages directly from the server depending on the context of the user
    • Ex: Social Media
    • Much more difficult to program, but are much easier to maintain

10.5: Types of Websites ​

• Blog: An online diary, originally called a web-log
• Content Website: typically dispense original content and often supported by advertising
• Corporate Website: Distribute info about a business
• Commerce Website (AKA E-Commerce site): to sell goods and services online
• Search Engine Website: Offers general information and intended to be the entryway to other websites
• Gaming Website: Typically, games unto themselves; require plug-ins like Adobe Flash, JavaScript, and ActiveX
• News Websites: Specifically devoted to providing news and commentary
• School Websites: Typically used by teachers, students, parents, and administrators.
• Video-sharing websites: Allow users to upload videos for a wider audience
  • Utilizes Users Datagram Protocol (UDP)

10.6: Website Online Software ​

• HTML is not a powerful programming language
• Fat Client: Provides rich functionality on the client side; independent of a central server
  • Ex: Microsoft programs
  • Pros: More functionality, very powerful
  • Cons: Expensive. Requires additional software and set up, requires more processing power
• Thin Client: A client that depends on a server for computing processing
  • Ex: Web browsers
  • Pros: Platform neutral, cheaper to maintain, better distribution of info
  • Cons: Not as powerful, less functionality, requires refreshing from the user

10.7: Online Advertising ​

• Online Advertising: A form of sponsorship that uses the WWW for delivering business-marketing strategies
• Examples:
  • Search Engine Results
  • Native Advertising
  • Social Network Advertising
  • Banner advertisement
• Purchasing Online Advertising
  • Cost Per Click (CPC)
  • Cost Per Thousand Impressions (CPM)
  • Cost Per Action (CPA)

Chapter 11: Computer Security ​

Midterm reminder: March 28th - 29th

• Exam Review after Chapter 11KC
• 40 new questions, 10 KC questions
  • Same format as last time

11.1: System Security & Computer Privacy ​

• An unsecured computer is extremely easy to breach by any seasoned hacker
• Computer Security: Concerned with risk management, confidentiality, integrity, and the availability of the electronic info processed and stored within a computing system
• Risk Management: Includes the recognition, consequences, and assessment of risk to a computer's assets, and developing strategies to manage and protect them

11.2: Business System Threats ​

• Intranet: A businesses' private version of the internet
• The key aspect of an intranet is privacy
• Firewall: Hardware and software working together to ensure that only authorized personnel can access the business' intranet

11.3: Firewall ​

• Without a firewall, an intranet is just another part of the internet
• Proxy Server: A special security computer that allows communication to flow in and out of an intranet to check for external threats
• Two standard security practices for firewalls:
  • Default-Deny
  • Default-Allow

11.4: Malware Threats ​

• The term "virus" comes from biology
• Malware Motivations:
  • Experimental Malware
  • Worms
  • Trojan Horses
  • Spyware/Keylogging
  • Adware
  • Spamming
  • Denial-of-Service Attach (DoS)
    • The deadliest
  • Reverse Phishing - "Spear Phishing"

11.5: Malware Solutions ​

• Antivirus Software
  • Norton AntiVirus
  • McAfee's VirusScan
• System patches
• Data Backup
• Employee training

11.6: Internet Fraud ​

• Internet fraud: Any fraudulent activity in an online setting
• Google AdSense, Google's advertising network; the middleman between the advertiser and the website owner
• Click Fraud: a program that automatically clicks on Ads
• Purchase Scam: scammer asks seller to pay for shipping via credit card, cancels credit card after order has shipped
• Most uncomplicated type of internet fraud
• Phishing: Uses social engineering techniques to gain private information

11.7: Computer Privacy ​

• Privacy: The ability of an individual to keep their personal information out of public view
• Anonymous: One's personal identity Is not be known
• Tracking Cookie: A small text file that tracks your interaction on a website
• History files: A list of stored or cached websites on a user's computer

50% of the time an unsecured computer can be hacked, and a password can be guessed

11.8: Identity Theft ​

• Identity theft: A crime concerning the unlawful practice of assuming another individual's identity
• Ways to acquire personal information:
  • Shoulder Surfing
  • Dumpster Diving
• SCAM
  • Stingy
  • Check
  • Ask
  • Maintain
• ASU's Recommended Password Manager: Stache
  • Bitwarden, 1Password, Dashlane, Keeper, KeePass

Chapter 12: Introduction to SQL ​

12.1: SQL Getting Started ​

• Capture the data
  • Point of Sale, Scanning, etc
• Get the data into a database
  • Import from other systems
  • Direct input from forms
• Extract the data
  • SQL
• Use the data
  • Analysis systems
  • Reporting systems
• SQL: The language of relational databases
  • Structured query Language

If you plan to analyze data for a business, there is a good chance it's stored in a data warehouse, and you will need to learn how to retrieve it yourself.

12.2: SQL Statement ​

• SELECT: What fields (column) you want
  • fieldname: If the name is used in only one table
• FROM: What table or tables contain the fields
• ORDER BY: Sorting
• DISTINCT: Use after SELECT when you only want to show each vale of the selected field(s) once
• LIMIT: Use when you want to limit the number of records produced

Chapter 13: Information Systems in Business ​

13.1: Business Functions ​

• What is the definition of a business
  • Accounting
  • Human Resources
  • Marketing
  • Research and Development (R&D)
  • Production
  • Collaboration is key

13.2: The Accounting Department ​

• "The mathematics of business"
• Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP)
• Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX)

13.3: The Human Resources Department ​

• Management of employees
• What is the most important asset of any business?

13.4: The Marketing Department ​

• Promotion of a business' products
• The Four P's of Marketing - E. Jerome McCarthy
  • Products
  • Pricing
  • Promotion
  • Placement

13.5: The Research & Development Department ​

• If a business isn't growing, it's dying
• Creative and systematic approach
  • AKA Brainstorming
• Is this idea feasible?

13.6: The Production Department ​

• The makers of the business
• Tangible vs. Intangible

13.7: Information System Collaboration ​

• Electronic Computing Tols
  • Discussion Boards
  • Instant Messaging
  • Texting
• Video Conferencing Software
  • Webinar
• Project Management Software
  • Microsoft Project
  • Gantt Chart
  • System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
  • Unified Modeling Language (UML)
• Knowledge Management Systems
• Online Application Software

Chapter 14: More SQL Statement ​

14.1: Statement Review ​

• SELECT: What fields (column) you want
  • fieldname: If the name is used in only one table
• FROM: What table or tables contain the fields
• ORDER BY: Sorting
• DISTINCT: Use after SELECT when you only want to show each vale of the selected field(s) once
• LIMIT: Use when you want to limit the number of records produced

14.2: New SQL Statements ​

• WHERE: Applies conditions, filters

  • WHERE clause conditions follow a pattern: field + comparison operator + value

  • sql

    WHERE crime.iucr_no = 420

    WHERE crime.iucr_no = 420

    1
    

• Comparison Operators:

  • > : Returns all records larger than the specified value
  • >=: Returns all records that are at least as large as the specified value (including the value)
  • < : Returns all records smaller than the specified value
  • <=: Returns all records that are at least as small as the specified value (including the value)
  • = : Returns all records that are exactly equal to the specified value
  • <>: Returns all records that are not equal to the specified value

• NULL: An empty value

• NOT: Can be used to create a condition that reverses the logic of any condition

  • Similar logic to the NOT function in Excel

• AND: Both conditions must be met for row to be included in query

• OR: Used to combine criteria when we want our results to mach any criteria

• BETWEEN: Shorthand way to include values in a range

• IN: Shorthand way to include values in a range

• LIKE: Use this statement when you aren't sure of the values in a record

• %: any combination of characters

  • %Keyword: ends with keyword
  • %Keyword%: looks for %keyword% anywhere in the record
  • Keyword%: starts with keyword

• - substitutes for any single character

  • 't_p' would return 'tip', 'tap', or 'top''; but not 'stop'

  • 'p_st" would return 'past"', but not 'paste'

  • 'h__s_n' would return 'hanson', 'hensen', or 'hansen'; but not 'harrison' (note that 'h%s_n' would return 'harrison')

14.3: Rules to Remember ​

• To combine AND and OR statements, you must follow the order of operations (AND 1st, OR 2nd)
  • If OR must be first, use ()
• All words must be in between ('_'), ("_")
  • If your value contains a quotation, use double quotation or a /
  • All #s is left as-is

Chapter 15: Business System Reporting ​

Final months schedule

• Today 4/9: Chapter 15/16
• Thursday 4/11: Final SQL Assessment
• Tuesday 4/16; Final Lecture and Final Exam Review
• Thursday 4/18: MKT
• 4/23 & 4/26: Zoom Office Hours
• Final Exam: 4/25 - 4/26
• Final day to complete all missing assignments: 4/28

15.1: Business System Reporting ​

• Defined as informaitonal output from an information system to facilitate decision-making.
• Report are periodic in nature
  • Daily, weekly, monthly, etc
  • Demand / Ad Hoc Reports
• Strategic vs. Tactical decisions
• Three main aspects of reporting:
  • Reporting summarization levels
  • Analysis and predictive reporting
  • Management Level Reporting
• Reporting Summarization Levels: The level of detail or summarization in the report
• Transaction Processing System (TPS)
  • Uses databases to store data
  • Groundwork for all other reports
  • Highest level of detail
• Analysis and Predictive Reporting
  • Use TPS as a foundation
  • Trend reporting
  • Graphical repors
  • Budget, forecast, and variance reports
• Management Level reporting
  • Top-level executive reporting
  • Management reporting
  • Supervisory reporting

​

Chapter 16: Information Technology Careers ​

16.1: IT Careers Intro ​

• Information Technology (IT) is everywhere
• A common axiom for IT professionals is "know the business"
• Value-Added: Refers to the added value of a product or service over the cost of products and services.

16.2: Business IT Perception ​

• IT department are responsible for servicing and enhancing all computing, technical assets, and intellectual property of a business organization
  • Service IT
  • IT consulting
• IT is the glue that holds organizations together

16.3: Information Technology Jobs ​

• Chief Information Officer (CIO): Te board-level head of Information Technology departments
  • AKA Chief Technology Officer (CTO)
  • Replaced 'IT Director' title
  • Highest paid technology position
• Head Application Developers In charge of software application development teams that develop, design, program and test software applications.
• System Development Life Cycle (SDLC): A process for creating and altering computer applications through an approach that includes planning, system analysis, design, implementation, and system maintenance
• Unified Modeling Language (UML): set of graphical notation techniques to create computer models and applications. It could be said that UML is a "blueprint" for developing applications
  • Application Architects: design different parts of applications
  • Middleware
  • Programming Infrastructure

16.4: Information Technology Jobs Contd. ​

• Database Administrators (DBAs): the wizards of databases and data requirements
• Network Administrators
• Senior Web Developers
• Business Intelligence Analyst
• Information Technology Staff Consultants
• IT Auditors

All IT jobs require experience, a degree, or both*

16.5: Enterprise Resource Planning Solution ​

• Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP): an overall software solution that attempts to get departments on the same page, allowing them to share information and more easily collaborate with each other

  • Advantages

    • Increase production, collab, & efficiency

    • Revenue cycles and order tracking more easily available; enhances decision making

  • Disadvantages

    • Must re-engineer own processes to fit ERP solutions
    • Expensive
    • Must have process for tracking new entries to prevent inaccurate data from entering the database
    • Difficult to modify

16.6: Unified Modeling Language ​

• Use case scenarios: "Who" can do "what"
• Object-Oriented Analysis (OOA): Is focused on what a computer system does
• Object Oriented Design (OOD): Focused on how a computer system what it does
• Sequence Diagrams: Illustrations that sow how computer processes related and interact with each other and in what order.

16.7: System Development Methodologies ​

• System Development Life Cycle
  • Initiation
  • Concept Development
  • Planing
  • Requirements
  • Design
  • Development
  • Testing
  • Implementation
• Rapid Application Development (RAD)
  • Develope as you go
• Software Prototyping
  • Prototypes AKA vaporware

Chapter 17: SQL Clauses: JOIN Query ​

17.1: JOIN & ON Clauses ​

• JOIN: Join tables together to connect multiple fields into 1 query.
• ON: Linking the primary and foreign key
• Linking formula: FROM table1 + JOIN table2 ON table1.primarykey = table2.foreignkey

SELECT first_name, last_name, link_to_major, major_id, major_name
	FROM member
	JOIN major
		ON member. link_to_major = major.major_id

SELECT first_name, last_name, link_to_major, major_id, major_name
	FROM member
	JOIN major
		ON member. link_to_major = major.major_id

17.2: SQL Statements: Primary vs. Foreign Keys ​

• Primary key: A field on a database table that uniquely identifies each row of the table.
• Foreign key: is used to combine the rows from one table wit the rows of another table.

17.3: SQL Statement: Date & Time Formatting ​

• The common conventional format of SQL date & time searching is as followed, in form of YEAR-MONTH-DATT12:00:00

  • sql

    '2022-04-17T12:00:00'

    '2022-04-17T12:00:00'

    1
    

Chapter 18: Databases ​

Housekeeping:

• Zoom Office Hours: Tuesday April 23rd and 25th, no class starting today.

18.1: Datase Overview ​

• Column = Field
  • AKA attributes
• Tables hold database data
• DBMS
• Oracle

18.2: Database Structure ​

• Entity Relationship Modeling (ERM): a database-modeling method used to construct a theoretical and conceptual representation of data to produce a schema.
  • Tables
  • Reports
  • Queries
  • Forms
• DBAs still need to know the business.

18.3: Business Database Advantages ​

• Data Validation
• No Errors + No Repeats = Data Integrity
• GIGO: Garbage-in-Garbage-Out

18.4: Structured Query language ​

• Most widely used query language
• SQL Clauses for updating fields:
  • APPEND
  • DELETE
  • UPDTE

Chapter 2: Application Software ​

• An application program is a computer program designed to carry out a specific task other than one relating to the operation of the computer itself.

2.1: Word Processing Software ​

• For creating, updating and editing documents
• Can create a Table of Contents
• Saved to secondary memory
• Often underestimated
• Microsoft Word: Most popular word processor in the world
• Adobe Acrobat: Most portable document format (pdf)
  • Platform Neutral
• Corel WordPerfect: most dominant in early 80s (still used in some industries like law)
  • Created and Brigham Young university

2.2: Spreadsheets ​

Microsoft Excel: Most popular spreadsheet application (provides "what-if" analysis)

• Interface of information in a grid form
• Separated by columns and rows
  • Intersection of both called a cell
• Often for financial calculations
• Supports graphing
• Replaced Lotus 1-2-3 as industry standard in 1993

2.3: Database Software ​

Database: The heavy-lifting application

• Well thought out collection of files
• Consists of records (rows)
• Separated by fields (columns)
• Can be queried
• Often called a Database Management System or simply referred as DBMS
• One-to-many relationship

2.4: Presentation Software ​

• Displays information
• Often a slide show and on-screen
• Easy to build
• Popularized by Business Intelligence
• Allows users to:
  • Edit, update, insert, and delete text
  • Include graphics, video, and hypertext

2.5: Browser Software ​

• User interface software that allows the user to display web pages found on the World Wide Web
• Browsers display hyperlinks that are clickable navigation elements
• Microsoft Edge, Google Chroe, Mozilla Firefox, and Apple's Safari
• The first browser was called WorldWideWeb (no spaces)
• Sir Tim Berners-Lee was the inventor of the first web browser

2.6: Networks ​

• A computer network is two or more computers connected together for resource sharing and communication.
• Resources: Computer files, folder, software
• Peripheral hardware: Printers, scanners, webcam, etc.

The advantages of a computer network over a stand-alone computer are so significant that business cannot compete effectively in the marketplace without a network of some kind, even if the business is a sole proprietorship.

Chapter 3: Computer Hardware ​

3.1: Technical Terminologies ​

• System Unit: Main body of the computer that contains a motherboard.
• Motherboard (AKA Circuit Board): Main component of a system unit; a compleex array of electronics that connect and help different components of the computer communicate with each other.
  • PC: Motherboards, Mac; Logic Boards
• Chassis (AKA Case or Box): Case to enclose the main components of a computer
• Microprocessor: The brains of the computer
  • Central processing unit (CPU): Interprets program instructions and processes data by performing arithmetic and logical operations.

3.2: Central Processing Unit (CPU) ​

• Speed is directly, but not solely, related to the CPU
• Measured in Clock Rate
  • The number of cycles per second, that a computer can perform its most basic task
• RSIC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer): Many chips encased into one chip
• Bus Lines; Pathways that transfer data and power between components inside of a computer.

Architecture Diagram of CPU	Actual CPU Image

3.3 Power Supply Unit (PSU) ​

• Supplies electricity
• Converts 100-120 volts or 220-240 volts of alternating current (AC) to a lower voltage direct current (DC) that can be used by the internal components of the system unit
• Different currents used in different parts of the world.

3.4: Primary and Secondary Storage ​

• Primary: The workbench
  • Random Access Memory (RAM): Primary storage
• Secondary: The storage for all your tools and supplies
  • Hard Drive: Secondary storage
• ROM Chips (Read-Only Memory): Preprogrammed chips that serve specialized internal tasks. No human intervention
  • AKA Firmware

3.4.1: Secondary Storage Contd. ​

• Internal vs. External Storage
• Hard Drivers vs. Solid State Drivers (SSDs)
• Impractical for a computer to be stand-alone
• Important to consider business needs
  • Bad IT can make or break a business

3.5: Binary Number System ​

• Computer only understands one language: Machine code or machine language

• 1 or 0 (on or off)

• 1s or 0s are referred to as bits (short for binary digits)

• 8 bits become a byte

  • Byte 8 bits
  • Kilob

• American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII): The coding scheme that most microcomputer use to represent bytes.

  • Name	Equal To	Size (In Bytes)
    Bit	1 Bit	1/8
    Nibble	4 Bits	1/2 (rare)
    Byte	8 Bits	1
    Kilobyte	1024 Bytes	1024
    Megabyte	1, 024 Kilobytes	1, 048, 576
    Gigabyte	1, 024 Megabytes	1, 073, 741, 824
    Terrabyte	1, 024 Gigabytes	1, 099, 511, 627, 776
    Petabyte	1, 024 Terabytes	1, 125, 899, 906, 842, 624
    Exabyte	1, 024 Petabytes	1, 152, 921, 504, 606, 846, 976
    Zettabyte	1, 024 Exabytes	1, 180, 591, 620, 717, 411, 303, 424
    Yottabyte	1, 024 Zettabytes	1, 208, 925, 819, 614, 629, 174, 706, 176

3.6: Peripheral Devices ​

• Input v. Output
• Input device: keywords, mice, touchpad, stylus, speakers, microphone, digital camera, etc/
• Optical Character Recognition (OCR): Converting printed text to digital text
• Radio Frequency Identification (RFID): An input mechanism that can be used to label a product for identification and have the product's information transmitted through radio waves.

3.7: Output Devices Contd. ​

• Monitor: A series of transistors that translate machine code into text and images./
• Pixels: A single dot on a graphic or text image
• Resolution: The number of pixels inside a defined dimension on a monitor, commonly referred to as dots per inch (dpi).
  • Resolution is the most important feature of a monitor.

Chapter 4: Formulas and Functions ​

4.1: References and Calculations ​

• Calculations
  • Add (+), Subtract (-), Multiply (*), Divide (/)
  • Add: A1+A2
  • Subtract: A1-A2
  • Multiply: A1*A2
  • Divide: A1/A2
• Always end typing by pressing Enter
• Al formulas start with an equals (=) sign

4.2: References and Calculations ​

• References: When we perform calculations in Excel, we often reference the value stored in other cells in our worksheet

• Three ays to reference a cell:

  • Relative reference - A1
  • Mixed reference - $A1 or A$1
  • Absolute reference - $A$1

• Relative Reference: An address or pointer that changes when the target item is moved or the relationship to it has changed.

  • RELATIVE REFERENCE IS THE DEFALT REFERENCE IN EXCEL.
  • The reference changes when the formula is copied elsewhere.
  • Excel sees the location of the cells relative to the location of the formula.
  • Click Fn + F4 as hotkeys to construct value as relative value

• Absolute Reference: Will make either the row or column "constant" in other words, the ABSOLUTE cell location is LOCKED

  • To create an absolute cell reference, put a dollar sign ``$` symbol in front of the part of the reference that you want to remain constant.

• Reference	Comments
  A1	Both the column and row references are "relative" and will change when the reference is copied and pasted to other cell.
  $A1	The column reference is "absolute" and will remain constant when copied and pasted to other cells. The row reference is "relative" and will change when copied and pasted to cells in other rows of the worksheet
  A$1	The column reference is "relative" and will change when copied and pasted to cells in other columns in the worksheet. The row reference is "absolute" and will remain constant when copied and pasted to other cells.
  $A$1	Both the column and row references are "absolute" and will remain constant when the reference is copied and pated to other cells.

4.3: Summary Statistics Functions ​

• Formula vs. Function
  • Formula: Any calculation in excel
  • Function: A pre-defined calculation
• To perform calculations in Excel, we often reference the values stored in other cells in our worksheets. We reference the cell location, not the value in the cell.
• COUNT(value1, [value2]), ...): Counts the number of cells in that contain numbers.
• COUNTA(value1, [value2], ...): Counts the number of cells in a range of cells that are not blank.
• AVERAGE(number1, [number2], ...): Calculates the simple average of a set of numbers.
• MAX(number1, [number2], ...): Returns the largest value in a set of numbers.
• MIN(number1, [number2], ...): Returns the smallest value in a set of numbers.

4.4: Financial Function ​

• RATE(nper, pmt, pv, [fv], [type], [guess]) : calculates the interest rate earned for an investment given the number of payments made as part of the investment, the payment amount, and the current value of the investment.
• EFFECT(nominal _rate, pery): calculates the annual percentage rate for an interest rate given the number of times per year that interest is charged.
• NPER(rate, pmt, pv, [fv], [type]): calculates the number of payments that will be made to pay off a loan given the interest rate, payment amount, and original loan amount.
• PMT(rate, per, pv, [fv], [type]): calculates the payment amount for a loan given the interest rate, number of payments to be made to pay off the loan, and the original loan amount.
• PV(rate, per, pmt, [fv], (type)): calculates the current value (accounting for compounding interest) of an investment given the interest rate, number of payments to be made, and the amount of the payment.
• FV(rate, per, pmt, [pv], [type]): calculates the future value of an investment given the interest rate, number of payments to be made, and the amount of the payment.

Chapter 5: Operating System ​

5.1: Operating System Fundamentals ​

• 1980: Bill Gates and Paul Allen leased IBM a Personal Computer (PC) called MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) for a one-time fee of $\$50,000$.
  • Gates Kept the copyright for MS-DOS
• 1984: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak created Mac OS
  • Advertised on "More user-friendly"

5.2: Understanding Operating Systems ​

• System software: Software that automatically runs to configure a computer (no human intervention)
• Operating system (AKA Platform): A collection of computer programs that administer the hardware and software of a computer so that they work properly
  • Microsoft Windows, Mac OS, UNIX, Linux
• Application software cannot run or be installed without a operating system.

5.3: Memory Management ​

• Operating system coordinate: Computers memory

  • Cache, Random Access Memory (RAM), registers, and virtual memory
  • Disk Storage

• CPU Cache: A small, very quick memory that stores copies of information and data from the most regularly-used parts of main memory

  • Helps decrease the time it takes to access memory.

• Random Access Memory (RAM): Volatile memory

• Disk Storage: Non-volatile memory

  • volatile memory stores data when a computer is on but erases it as soon as the computer is switched off, whereas non-volatile memory remains in a computer even after the system shuts off.

5.4: Memory Management Contd. ​

• Registers: Small memory locations used to quicken the implementation of computer programs
  • Customization towards the device including wallpaper setting which is referred the process of registering.
• Virtual Memory: Memory the OS uses to coordinate, track and efficiently allocate the use of CPU cache, registers, RAM and disk storage.
  • The messenger between volatile and non-volatile storage.

5.5: Disk Management ​

• OS is responsible for saving information as efficiently as possible
  • Creates a table of contents of FAT (File Allocation Table)
• Defragmentation: A program the reorganizes the hard drive
  • Note required for SSD
• Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
  • Pros: More affordable, good for standard business procedures
  • Cons: more prone to damage
• Solid State Drives (SSD)
  • Pros: N moving parts, more reliable
  • Cons: More expensive.

5.6: File Management ​

• File manager are made up of Hierarchy of Directories, more commonly referred to as folders
  • Can be compared to a physical storage

5.7: Networks ​

• Network: 2 or more computers connected together
• Transmission control protocol and internet protocol (TCP/IP): A set of rules for transferring information from one computer to another
  • Transfers info by breaking up files into packates
• The internet is the world's largest network

5.8: Device Drivers ​

• Device Driver: Allows the OS to communicate with peripheral devices
• Modern OS have plug-and-play capability
• 1996: USB developed and considered industry standard

5.9: embedded Operating Systems ​

• Embedded Operating System: OS installed on devices and appliances that rely on computing
  • Ex; Cash registers, automatic teller machines (ATM), microwaves, and specialized handled devices
  • Embedded OS cannot be modified in most cases
  • Embedded OS used on most cell pones
    • Google, Android, and iPhone

5.10: Mac or PC? ​

• The answer is baed on the needs of the business
• Ask yourself: Which one are your end-users comfortable or have experiencing using? Which one gives you a clear competitive advantage?

5.11: Major Operating Systems ​

• Microsoft Windows: Windows 10
  • Windows 11 available for download
• Mac Operating System (AKA Mac OS)
  • Version 14: Sonoma
• Linux: An open-source OS that can be modified, used, and redistributed by anyone freely
  • Created by Linux Torvalds
• UNIX: Popular for large processing applications like credit card transactions and approvals.

5.12: Open-Source OS ​

• Proprietary software vs. open-source
  • Why doesn't everyone use open-source
• Diffusion: A product or software is widely accepted