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Learning Objectives
One of the major reasons for studying chemical kinetics is to use measurements of the macroscopic properties of a system, such as the rate of change in the concentration of reactants or products with time, to discover the sequence of events that occur at the molecular level during a reaction. This molecular description is the mechanism of the reaction; it describes how individual atoms, ions, or molecules interact to form particular products. The stepwise changes are collectively called the reaction mechanism.
In an internal combustion engine, for example, isooctane reacts with oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water:
For this reaction to occur in a single step, 25 dioxygen molecules and 2 isooctane molecules would have to collide simultaneously and be converted to 34 molecules of product, which is very unlikely. It is more likely that a complex series of reactions takes place in a stepwise fashion. Each individual reaction, which is called an elementary reaction, involves one, two, or (rarely) three atoms, molecules, or ions. The overall sequence of elementary reactions is the mechanism of the reaction. The sum of the individual steps, or elementary reactions, in the mechanism must give the balanced chemical equation for the overall reaction.
The overall sequence of elementary reactions is the mechanism of the reaction.
To demonstrate how the analysis of elementary reactions helps us determine the overall reaction mechanism, we will examine the much simpler reaction of carbon monoxide with nitrogen dioxide.
From the balanced chemical equation, one might expect the reaction to occur via a collision of one molecule of with a molecule of that results in the transfer of an oxygen atom from nitrogen to carbon. The experimentally determined rate law for the reaction, however, is as follows:
The fact that the reaction is second order in and independent of tells us that it does not occur by the simple collision model outlined previously. If it did, its predicted rate law would be
The following two-step mechanism is consistent with the rate law if step 1 is much slower than step 2:
| Steps | Reaction | Reaction Type |
|---|---|---|
| step 1 | elementary reaction | |
| step 2 | elementary reaction | |
| sum | overall reaction |
According to this mechanism, the overall reaction occurs in two steps, or elementary reactions. Summing steps 1 and 2 and canceling on both sides of the equation gives the overall balanced chemical equation for the reaction. The molecule is intermediate in the reaction, a species that does not appear in the balanced chemical equation for the overall reaction. It is formed as a product of the first step but is consumed in the second step.
The sum of the elementary reactions in a reaction mechanism must give the overall balanced chemical equation of the reaction.
The molecularity of an elementary reaction is the number of molecules that collide during that step in the mechanism. If there is only a single reactant molecule in an elementary reaction, that step is designated as unimolecular; if there are two reactant molecules, it is bimolecular; and if there are three reactant molecules (a relatively rare situation), it is termolecular. Elementary reactions that involve the simultaneous collision of more than three molecules are highly improbable and have never been observed experimentally. (To understand why, try to make three or more marbles or pool balls collide with one another simultaneously!)
About the image
The Basis for Writing Rate Laws of Elementary Reactions. This diagram illustrates how the number of possible collisions per unit time between two reactant species, A and B, depends on the number of A and B particles present. The number of collisions between A and B particles increases as the product of the number of particles, not as the sum. This is why the rate law for an elementary reaction depends on the product of the concentrations of the species that collide in that step. (CC BY-NC-SA; anonymous)
Writing the rate law for an elementary reaction is straightforward because we know how many molecules must collide simultaneously for the elementary reaction to occur; hence the order of the elementary reaction is the same as its molecularity (Table 14.6.1). In contrast, the rate law for the reaction cannot be determined from the balanced chemical equation for the overall reaction. The general rate law for a unimolecular elementary reaction ( products) is
For bimolecular reactions, the reaction rate depends on the number of collisions per unit time, which is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants, as shown in Figure 14.6.1 For a bimolecular elementary reaction of the form products, the general rate law is
| Elementary Reaction | Molecularity | Rate | Reaction Order |
|---|---|---|---|
| Unimolecular | first | ||
| Bimolecular | second | ||
| Bimolecular | second | ||
| Termolecular | third | ||
| Termolecular | third |
For elementary reactions, the order of the elementary reaction is the same as its molecularity. In contrast, the rate law cannot be determined from the balanced chemical equation for the overall reaction (unless it is a single step mechanism and is therefore also an elementary step).
Note the important difference between writing rate laws for elementary reactions and the balanced chemical equation of the overall reaction. Because the balanced chemical equation does not necessarily reveal the individual elementary reactions by which the reaction occurs, we cannot obtain the rate law for a reaction from the overall balanced chemical equation alone. In fact, it is the rate law for the slowest overall reaction, which is the same as the rate law for the slowest step in the reaction mechanism, the ratedetermining step, that must give the experimentally determined rate law for the overall reaction.This statement is true if one step is substantially slower than all the others, typically by a factor of 10 or more. If two or more slow steps have comparable rates, the experimentally determined rate laws can become complex. Our discussion is limited to reactions in which one step can be identified as being substantially slower than any other. The reason for this is that any process that occurs through a sequence of steps can take place no faster than the slowest step in the sequence. In an automotive assembly line, for example, a component cannot be used faster than it is produced. Similarly, blood pressure is regulated by the flow of blood through the smallest passages, the capillaries. Because movement through capillaries constitutes the rate-determining step in blood flow, blood pressure can be regulated by medications that cause the capillaries to contract or dilate. A chemical reaction that occurs via a series of elementary reactions can take place no faster than the slowest step in the series of reactions.
Look at the rate laws for each elementary reaction in the example as well as for the overall reaction.
Rate laws for each elementary reaction in our example as well as for the overall reaction
| Steps | Reaction | Rate |
|---|---|---|
| step 1 | ||
| step 2 | ||
| step 3 |
The experimentally determined rate law for the reaction of with is the same as the predicted rate law for step 1 . This tells us that the first elementary reaction is the rate-determining step, so for the overall reaction must equal . That is, is formed slowly in step 1, but once it is formed, it reacts very rapidly with CO in step 2.
Sometimes chemists are able to propose two or more mechanisms that are consistent with the available data. If a proposed mechanism predicts the wrong experimental rate law, however, the mechanism must be incorrect.
In an alternative mechanism for the reaction of with with appearing as an intermediate.
alternative mechanism for the reaction of with with appearing as an intermediate.
Write the rate law for each elementary reaction. Is this mechanism consistent with the experimentally determined rate law (rate )
Given: elementary reactions Asked for: rate law for each elementary reaction and overall rate law
Determine the rate law for each elementary reaction in the reaction.
Determine which rate law corresponds to the experimentally determined rate law for the reaction. This rate law is the one for the rate-determining step.
A The rate law for step 1 is rate ; for step 2 , it is rate .
B If step 1 is slow (and therefore the rate-determining step), then the overall rate law for the reaction will be the same: rate . This is the same as the experimentally determined rate law. Hence this mechanism, with as an intermediate, and the one described previously, with as an intermediate, are kinetically indistinguishable. In this case, further experiments are needed to distinguish between them. For example, the researcher could try to detect the proposed intermediates, and , directly.
At in the presence of a copper surface, ethanol decomposes according to the equation
The pressure of was measured as a function of time and the following data were obtained:
| Time (s) | |
|---|---|
| 0 | 250. |
| 100. | 237 |
| 200. | 224 |
| 300. | 211 |
| 400. | 198 |
| 500. | 185 |
Since the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the concentration of gas, we can express the rate law for a gaseous reaction in terms of partial pressures. Using the above data, deduce the rate law, the integrated rate law, and the value of the rate constant, all in terms of pressure units in atm and time in seconds. Predict the pressure of after from the start of the reaction. (Hint: To determine the order of the reaction with respect to , compare how the pressure of decreases with each time listing.)
Due to the fact that the graph of over time is showing value of 1 we know we have a zero-order reaction. Therefore:
Patterns of organization can help your readers follow the ideas within your essay and your paragraphs, but they can also work as methods of development to help you recognize and further develop ideas and relationships in your writing. Here are some strategies that can help you with both organization and development in your essays.
Read the following sentences:
How did it feel to read the above list? A bit confusing, I would guess. Thatâs because the steps for making a pie were not well organized, and the steps donât include enough detail for us to know exactly what we should do. (Like what are the dry and liquid ingredients?) We all know that starting instructions from the beginning and giving each detailed step in the order it should happen is vital to having a good outcome, in this case a yummy pie! But itâs not always so simple to know how to organize or develop ideas, and sometimes thereâs more than one way, which complicates things even further.
First, letâs take a look at a couple of ways to think about organization.
It might be useful to think about organizing your topic like a triangle:
The first triangle represents starting with the most general, big picture information first, moving then to more detailed and often more personal information later in the paper. The second triangle represents an organizational structure that starts with the specific, small scale information first and then moves to the more global, big picture stuff.
For example, if your topic is traffic in Vancouver, British Columbia, an essay that uses the general-to-specific organizational structure might begin this way:
Many people consider Vancouver, British Columbia, to be a relaxed place to live. They would be shocked to know how bad the traffic is traveling major arteries into the city and even driving around the city itself.
An essay that uses the specific-to-general structure might start like this:
Transit is crowded, parking is expensive, and vehicles stop and go through the main streets of the city of Vancouver, British Columbia, and that is just once travelers brave the crowded arteries to enter the city; Vancouverâs traffic problem does not lend itself to the relaxed atmosphere many believe the city to have.
Whatâs the difference between these two introductions? And how might they appeal to the intended audience for this essay in different ways? The first introduction is looking at the big picture of the problem and mentions pollutionâs impact on all citizens in Portland, while the second introduction focuses on one specific family. The first helps readers see how vast the problem really is, and the second helps connect readers to a real family, making an emotional appeal from the very beginning. Neither introduction is necessarily better. Youâll choose one over the other based on the kind of tone youâd like to create and how youâd like to affect your audience. Itâs completely up to you to make this decision.
The triangle is kind of a general guide, meaning youâre allowed to move around within it all you want. For example, itâs possible that each of your paragraphs will be its own triangle, starting with the general or specific and moving out or in. However, if you begin very broadly, it might be effective to end your essay in a more specific, personal way. And if you begin with a personal story, consider ending your essay by touching on the global impact and importance of your topic.
Yes! Rather than thinking about which of your ideas are most specific or personal or which are more broad or universal, you might consider one of the following ways of organizing your ideas:
The section on Methods of Development, below, offers more detail about some of these organizational patterns, along with some others.
Choose one of the following topics, and practice writing a few opening sentences like we did above, once using the general-to-specific format and once using the specific-to-general. Which do you like better? What audience would be attracted to which one? Share with peers to see how others tackled this challenge. How would you rewrite their sentences? Why? Discuss your changes and listen to how your peers have revised your sentences. Taking in other peopleâs ideas will help you see new ways to approach your own writing and thinking.
Topics:
The methods of development covered here are best used as ways to look at whatâs already happening in your draft and to consider how you might emphasize or expand on any existing patterns. You might already be familiar with some of these patterns because teachers will sometimes assign them as the purpose for writing an essay. For example, you might have been asked to write a cause-and-effect essay or a comparison-and-contrast essay.
Itâs important to emphasize here that patterns of organization or methods of developing content usually happen naturally as a consequence of the way the writer engages with and organizes information while writing. That is to say, most writers donât sit down and say, âI think Iâll write a cause-and-effect essay today.â Instead, a writer might be more likely to be interested in a topic, say, the state of drinking water in the local community, and as the writer begins to explore the topic, certain cause-and-effect relationships between environmental pollutants and the community water supply may begin to emerge.
So if these patterns just occur naturally in writing, whatâs the use in knowing about them? Well, sometimes you might be revising a draft and notice that some of your paragraphs are a bit underdeveloped. Maybe they lack a clear topic, or maybe they lack support. In either case, you can look to these common methods of development to find ways to sharpen those vague topics or to add support where needed. Do you have a clear cause statement somewhere but you havenât explored the effects? Are you lacking detail somewhere where a narrative story or historical chronology can help build reader interest and add support? Are you struggling to define an idea that might benefit from some comparison or contrast? Read on to consider some of the ways that these strategies can help you in revision.
Do you see a potential cause-and-effect relationship developing in your draft? The cause-and-effect pattern may be used to identify one or more causes followed by one or more effects or results. Or you may reverse this sequence and describe effects first and then the cause or causes. For example, the causes of water pollution might be followed by its effects on both humans and animals. You may use obvious transitions to clarify cause and effect, such as âWhat are the results? Here are some of themâŠâ or you might simply use the words cause, effect, and result, to cue the reader about your about the relationships that youâre establishing.
At some point does your essay explore a problem or suggest a solution? The problem-solution pattern is commonly used in identifying something thatâs wrong and in contemplating what might be done to remedy the situation. There are probably more ways to organize a problem-solution approach, but but here are three possibilities:
When the solution is stated at the end of the paper, the pattern is sometimes called the delayed proposal. For a hostile audience, it may be effective to describe the problem, show why other solutions do not work, and finally suggest the favored solution. You can emphasize the words problem and solution to signal these sections of your paper for your reader.
Do you need to develop support for a topic where telling a story can illustrate some important concept for your readers? Material arranged chronologically is explained as it occurs in time. A chronological or narrative method of development might help you find a way to add both interest and content to your essay. Material arranged chronologically is explained as it occurs in time. This pattern may be used to establish what has happened. Chronology or narrative can be a great way to introduce your essay by providing a background or history behind your topic. Or you may want to tell a story to develop one or more points in the body of your essay. You can use transitional words like then, next, and finally to make the parts of the chronology clear.
Are you trying to define something? Do you need your readers to understand what something is and what it is not? The comparison-and-contrast method of development is particularly useful in extending a definition, or anywhere you need to show how a subject is like or unlike another subject. For example, the statement is often made that drug abuse is a medical problem instead of a criminal justice issue. An author might attempt to prove this point by comparing drug addiction to AIDS, cancer, or heart disease to redefine the term âaddictionâ as a medical problem. A statement in opposition to this idea could just as easily establish contrast by explaining all the ways that addiction is different from what we traditionally understand as an illness. In seeking to establish comparison or contrast in your writing, some words or terms that might be useful are by contrast, in comparison, while, some, and others.
Summary
These four methods of developmentâcause and effect, problem-solution, chronology or narrative, and comparison and contrastâare just a few ways to organize and develop ideas and content in your essays. Itâs important to note that they should not be a starting point for writers who want to write something authenticâsomething that they care deeply about. Instead, they can be a great way to help you look for whatâs already happening with your topic or in a draft, to help you to write more, or to help you reorganize some parts of an essay that seem to lack connection or feel disjointed. Look for organizational patterns when youâre reading work by professional writers. Notice where they combine strategies (e.g., a problem-solution pattern that uses cause-and-effect organization, or a comparison-contrast pattern that uses narrative or chronology to develop similarities or differences). Pay attention to how different writers emphasize and develop their main ideas, and use what you find to inspire you in your own writing. Better yet, work on developing completely new patterns of your own.
Reference
This chapter was adapted from âPatterns of Organization and Methods of Developmentâ in The Word on College Reading and Writing by Carol Burnell, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear, which is licensed under a CC BY-NC 4.0 Licence. Adapted by Allison Kilgannon.
âPeach and lavender pieâ by Heather Joan is licensed under a CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 Licence.
âGeneral to Specific vs. Specific to General Trianglesâ by Carol Burnell, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 Licence.
Kilgannon, Allison. âPatterns of Organization and Methods of Development.â Opentextbc.ca, 20 Aug. 2021, opentextbc.ca/advancedenglish/chapter/patterns-of-organization-and-methods-of-development/#:~:text=These four methods of development.
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This table of vocabularies are from "Sadlier Vocabulary Workshop-Level G (Unit 4)" with their corresponding textbook definitions and part of speeches (from some of them) made into a collection.
| Vocabulary | Definition |
|---|---|
| Atrophy | (n.) the wasting away of a body organ or tissue; any progressive decline or failure; (v.) to waste away |
| Bastion | A fortified place, stronghold |
| Concord | A state of agreement, harmony, unanimity; a treaty, pact, covenant |
| Consummate | (adj.) complete or perfect in the highest degree; (v.) to bring to a state of completion or perfection |
| Disarray | (n.) disorder, confusion; (v.) to throw into disorder |
| Exigency | Urgency, pressure; urgent demand, pressing need; an emergency |
| Flotsam | Floating debris; homeless, impoverished people |
| Frenetic | Frenzied, highly agitated |
| Glean | To gather bit by bit; to gather small quantities of grain left in a field by the reapers. |
| Grouse | (n.) A type of game bird; a complaint; (v.) to complain, grumble |
| Incarcerate | To imprison, confine, jail |
| Incumbent | (adj.) obligatory, required; (n.) one who holds a specific office at the time spoken of |
| Jocular | Humorous, jesting, jolly, joking |
| Ludicrous | Ridiculous, laughable, absurd |
| Mordant | Biting or caustic in thought, manner, or style; sharply or bitterly harsh. |
| Nettle | (n.) a prickly or stinging plant; (v.) to arouse displeasure, impatience, or anger; to vex or irritate severely |
| Pecuniary | Consisting of or measured in money; of or related to money |
| Pusillanimous | Contemptibly cowardly or mean-spirited |
| Recumbent | In a reclining position, lying down, in the posture of one sleeping or resting. |
| Stratagem | A scheme to outwit or deceive an opponent or to gain and end. |
Reference
Learning Objectives
One of the major reasons for studying chemical kinetics is to use measurements of the macroscopic properties of a system, such as the rate of change in the concentration of reactants or products with time, to discover the sequence of events that occur at the molecular level during a reaction. This molecular description is the mechanism of the reaction; it describes how individual atoms, ions, or molecules interact to form particular products. The stepwise changes are collectively called the reaction mechanism.
In an internal combustion engine, for example, isooctane reacts with oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water:
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It is more likely that a complex series of reactions takes place in a stepwise fashion. Each individual reaction, which is called an elementary reaction, involves one, two, or (rarely) three atoms, molecules, or ions. The overall sequence of elementary reactions is the mechanism of the reaction. The sum of the individual steps, or elementary reactions, in the mechanism must give the balanced chemical equation for the overall reaction.",-1),p=s("p",null,"The overall sequence of elementary reactions is the mechanism of the reaction.",-1),h=s("h2",{id:"_12-5-2-molecularity-and-the-rate-determining-step",tabindex:"-1"},[a("12-5-2: Molecularity and the Rate-Determining Step "),s("a",{class:"header-anchor",href:"#_12-5-2-molecularity-and-the-rate-determining-step","aria-hidden":"true"},"#")],-1),o=s("p",null,"To demonstrate how the analysis of elementary reactions helps us determine the overall reaction mechanism, we will examine the much simpler reaction of carbon monoxide with nitrogen 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It is more likely that a complex series of reactions takes place in a stepwise fashion. Each individual reaction, which is called an elementary reaction, involves one, two, or (rarely) three atoms, molecules, or ions. The overall sequence of elementary reactions is the mechanism of the reaction. 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In contrast, the rate law cannot be determined from the balanced chemical equation for the overall reaction (unless it is a single step mechanism and is therefore also an elementary step).")],-1),B=s("h2",{id:"_12-5-4-identifying-the-rate-determining-step",tabindex:"-1"},[a("12-5-4: Identifying the Rate-Determining Step "),s("a",{class:"header-anchor",href:"#_12-5-4-identifying-the-rate-determining-step","aria-hidden":"true"},"#")],-1),R=s("p",null,"Note the important difference between writing rate laws for elementary reactions and the balanced chemical equation of the overall reaction. Because the balanced chemical equation does not necessarily reveal the individual elementary reactions by which the reaction occurs, we cannot obtain the rate law for a reaction from the overall balanced chemical equation alone. In fact, it is the rate law for the slowest overall reaction, which is the same as the rate law for the slowest step in the reaction mechanism, the ratedetermining step, that must give the experimentally determined rate law for the overall reaction.This statement is true if one step is substantially slower than all the others, typically by a factor of 10 or more. If two or more slow steps have comparable rates, the experimentally determined rate laws can become complex. Our discussion is limited to reactions in which one step can be identified as being substantially slower than any other. The reason for this is that any process that occurs through a sequence of steps can take place no faster than the slowest step in the sequence. In an automotive assembly line, for example, a component cannot be used faster than it is produced. Similarly, blood pressure is regulated by the flow of blood through the smallest passages, the capillaries. Because movement through capillaries constitutes the rate-determining step in blood flow, blood pressure can be regulated by medications that cause the capillaries to contract or dilate. 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review","frontmatter":{"title":"Patterns of Organization and Methods of Development","description":"Literature methods of development article clip for review"},"headers":[{"level":2,"title":"Major Patterns of Organization","slug":"major-patterns-of-organization","link":"#major-patterns-of-organization","children":[]},{"level":2,"title":"General to Specific or Specific to General","slug":"general-to-specific-or-specific-to-general","link":"#general-to-specific-or-specific-to-general","children":[]},{"level":2,"title":"Does the Triangle Mean the Essay Keeps Getting More Specific or More Broad until the Very End?","slug":"does-the-triangle-mean-the-essay-keeps-getting-more-specific-or-more-broad-until-the-very-end","link":"#does-the-triangle-mean-the-essay-keeps-getting-more-specific-or-more-broad-until-the-very-end","children":[]},{"level":2,"title":"Are There Other Ways to Think about Organizing My 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organization can help your readers follow the ideas within your essay and your paragraphs, but they can also work as methods of development to help you recognize and further develop ideas and relationships in your writing. Here are some strategies that can help you with both organization and development in your essays.
Read the following sentences:
How did it feel to read the above list? A bit confusing, I would guess. Thatâs because the steps for making a pie were not well organized, and the steps donât include enough detail for us to know exactly what we should do. (Like what are the dry and liquid ingredients?) We all know that starting instructions from the beginning and giving each detailed step in the order it should happen is vital to having a good outcome, in this case a yummy pie! But itâs not always so simple to know how to organize or develop ideas, and sometimes thereâs more than one way, which complicates things even further.
First, letâs take a look at a couple of ways to think about organization.
It might be useful to think about organizing your topic like a triangle:
The first triangle represents starting with the most general, big picture information first, moving then to more detailed and often more personal information later in the paper. The second triangle represents an organizational structure that starts with the specific, small scale information first and then moves to the more global, big picture stuff.
For example, if your topic is traffic in Vancouver, British Columbia, an essay that uses the general-to-specific organizational structure might begin this way:
Many people consider Vancouver, British Columbia, to be a relaxed place to live. They would be shocked to know how bad the traffic is traveling major arteries into the city and even driving around the city itself.
An essay that uses the specific-to-general structure might start like this:
Transit is crowded, parking is expensive, and vehicles stop and go through the main streets of the city of Vancouver, British Columbia, and that is just once travelers brave the crowded arteries to enter the city; Vancouverâs traffic problem does not lend itself to the relaxed atmosphere many believe the city to have.
Whatâs the difference between these two introductions? And how might they appeal to the intended audience for this essay in different ways? The first introduction is looking at the big picture of the problem and mentions pollutionâs impact on all citizens in Portland, while the second introduction focuses on one specific family. The first helps readers see how vast the problem really is, and the second helps connect readers to a real family, making an emotional appeal from the very beginning. Neither introduction is necessarily better. Youâll choose one over the other based on the kind of tone youâd like to create and how youâd like to affect your audience. Itâs completely up to you to make this decision.
The triangle is kind of a general guide, meaning youâre allowed to move around within it all you want. For example, itâs possible that each of your paragraphs will be its own triangle, starting with the general or specific and moving out or in. However, if you begin very broadly, it might be effective to end your essay in a more specific, personal way. And if you begin with a personal story, consider ending your essay by touching on the global impact and importance of your topic.
Yes! Rather than thinking about which of your ideas are most specific or personal or which are more broad or universal, you might consider one of the following ways of organizing your ideas:
The section on Methods of Development, below, offers more detail about some of these organizational patterns, along with some others.
Choose one of the following topics, and practice writing a few opening sentences like we did above, once using the general-to-specific format and once using the specific-to-general. Which do you like better? What audience would be attracted to which one? Share with peers to see how others tackled this challenge. How would you rewrite their sentences? Why? Discuss your changes and listen to how your peers have revised your sentences. Taking in other peopleâs ideas will help you see new ways to approach your own writing and thinking.
Topics:
The methods of development covered here are best used as ways to look at whatâs already happening in your draft and to consider how you might emphasize or expand on any existing patterns. You might already be familiar with some of these patterns because teachers will sometimes assign them as the purpose for writing an essay. For example, you might have been asked to write a cause-and-effect essay or a comparison-and-contrast essay.
Itâs important to emphasize here that patterns of organization or methods of developing content usually happen naturally as a consequence of the way the writer engages with and organizes information while writing. That is to say, most writers donât sit down and say, âI think Iâll write a cause-and-effect essay today.â Instead, a writer might be more likely to be interested in a topic, say, the state of drinking water in the local community, and as the writer begins to explore the topic, certain cause-and-effect relationships between environmental pollutants and the community water supply may begin to emerge.
So if these patterns just occur naturally in writing, whatâs the use in knowing about them? Well, sometimes you might be revising a draft and notice that some of your paragraphs are a bit underdeveloped. Maybe they lack a clear topic, or maybe they lack support. In either case, you can look to these common methods of development to find ways to sharpen those vague topics or to add support where needed. Do you have a clear cause statement somewhere but you havenât explored the effects? Are you lacking detail somewhere where a narrative story or historical chronology can help build reader interest and add support? Are you struggling to define an idea that might benefit from some comparison or contrast? Read on to consider some of the ways that these strategies can help you in revision.
Do you see a potential cause-and-effect relationship developing in your draft? The cause-and-effect pattern may be used to identify one or more causes followed by one or more effects or results. Or you may reverse this sequence and describe effects first and then the cause or causes. For example, the causes of water pollution might be followed by its effects on both humans and animals. You may use obvious transitions to clarify cause and effect, such as âWhat are the results? Here are some of themâŠâ or you might simply use the words cause, effect, and result, to cue the reader about your about the relationships that youâre establishing.
At some point does your essay explore a problem or suggest a solution? The problem-solution pattern is commonly used in identifying something thatâs wrong and in contemplating what might be done to remedy the situation. There are probably more ways to organize a problem-solution approach, but but here are three possibilities:
When the solution is stated at the end of the paper, the pattern is sometimes called the delayed proposal. For a hostile audience, it may be effective to describe the problem, show why other solutions do not work, and finally suggest the favored solution. You can emphasize the words problem and solution to signal these sections of your paper for your reader.
Do you need to develop support for a topic where telling a story can illustrate some important concept for your readers? Material arranged chronologically is explained as it occurs in time. A chronological or narrative method of development might help you find a way to add both interest and content to your essay. Material arranged chronologically is explained as it occurs in time. This pattern may be used to establish what has happened. Chronology or narrative can be a great way to introduce your essay by providing a background or history behind your topic. Or you may want to tell a story to develop one or more points in the body of your essay. You can use transitional words like then, next, and finally to make the parts of the chronology clear.
Are you trying to define something? Do you need your readers to understand what something is and what it is not? The comparison-and-contrast method of development is particularly useful in extending a definition, or anywhere you need to show how a subject is like or unlike another subject. For example, the statement is often made that drug abuse is a medical problem instead of a criminal justice issue. An author might attempt to prove this point by comparing drug addiction to AIDS, cancer, or heart disease to redefine the term âaddictionâ as a medical problem. A statement in opposition to this idea could just as easily establish contrast by explaining all the ways that addiction is different from what we traditionally understand as an illness. In seeking to establish comparison or contrast in your writing, some words or terms that might be useful are by contrast, in comparison, while, some, and others.
Summary
These four methods of developmentâcause and effect, problem-solution, chronology or narrative, and comparison and contrastâare just a few ways to organize and develop ideas and content in your essays. Itâs important to note that they should not be a starting point for writers who want to write something authenticâsomething that they care deeply about. Instead, they can be a great way to help you look for whatâs already happening with your topic or in a draft, to help you to write more, or to help you reorganize some parts of an essay that seem to lack connection or feel disjointed. Look for organizational patterns when youâre reading work by professional writers. Notice where they combine strategies (e.g., a problem-solution pattern that uses cause-and-effect organization, or a comparison-contrast pattern that uses narrative or chronology to develop similarities or differences). Pay attention to how different writers emphasize and develop their main ideas, and use what you find to inspire you in your own writing. Better yet, work on developing completely new patterns of your own.
Reference
This chapter was adapted from âPatterns of Organization and Methods of Developmentâ in The Word on College Reading and Writing by Carol Burnell, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear, which is licensed under a CC BY-NC 4.0 Licence. Adapted by Allison Kilgannon.
âPeach and lavender pieâ by Heather Joan is licensed under a CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 Licence.
âGeneral to Specific vs. Specific to General Trianglesâ by Carol Burnell, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 Licence.
Kilgannon, Allison. âPatterns of Organization and Methods of Development.â Opentextbc.ca, 20 Aug. 2021, opentextbc.ca/advancedenglish/chapter/patterns-of-organization-and-methods-of-development/#:~:text=These four methods of development.
This table of vocabularies are from "Sadlier Vocabulary Workshop-Level G (Unit 4)" with their corresponding textbook definitions and part of speeches (from some of them) made into a collection.
| Vocabulary | Definition |
|---|---|
| Atrophy | (n.) the wasting away of a body organ or tissue; any progressive decline or failure; (v.) to waste away |
| Bastion | A fortified place, stronghold |
| Concord | A state of agreement, harmony, unanimity; a treaty, pact, covenant |
| Consummate | (adj.) complete or perfect in the highest degree; (v.) to bring to a state of completion or perfection |
| Disarray | (n.) disorder, confusion; (v.) to throw into disorder |
| Exigency | Urgency, pressure; urgent demand, pressing need; an emergency |
| Flotsam | Floating debris; homeless, impoverished people |
| Frenetic | Frenzied, highly agitated |
| Glean | To gather bit by bit; to gather small quantities of grain left in a field by the reapers. |
| Grouse | (n.) A type of game bird; a complaint; (v.) to complain, grumble |
| Incarcerate | To imprison, confine, jail |
| Incumbent | (adj.) obligatory, required; (n.) one who holds a specific office at the time spoken of |
| Jocular | Humorous, jesting, jolly, joking |
| Ludicrous | Ridiculous, laughable, absurd |
| Mordant | Biting or caustic in thought, manner, or style; sharply or bitterly harsh. |
| Nettle | (n.) a prickly or stinging plant; (v.) to arouse displeasure, impatience, or anger; to vex or irritate severely |
| Pecuniary | Consisting of or measured in money; of or related to money |
| Pusillanimous | Contemptibly cowardly or mean-spirited |
| Recumbent | In a reclining position, lying down, in the posture of one sleeping or resting. |
| Stratagem | A scheme to outwit or deceive an opponent or to gain and end. |
Reference
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Br=R(gd,[["render",kd]]),$d={class:"items"},Pd={class:"title"},Cd=F({__name:"VPNavBarTranslations",setup(e){const{localeLinks:t,currentLang:n}=Ln({correspondingLink:!0});return(s,o)=>p(t).length&&p(n).label?(h(),Q($o,{key:0,class:"VPNavBarTranslations",icon:Br},{default:B(()=>[_("div",$d,[_("p",Pd,re(p(n).label),1),(h(!0),y(oe,null,Pe(p(t),i=>(h(),Q(vs,{key:i.link,item:i},null,8,["item"]))),128))])]),_:1})):j("",!0)}});const Sd=R(Cd,[["__scopeId","data-v-fdaf79b7"]]);const Ed={},Td={class:"VPSwitch",type:"button",role:"switch"},Ld={class:"check"},Md={key:0,class:"icon"};function Vd(e,t){return h(),y("button",Td,[_("span",Ld,[e.$slots.default?(h(),y("span",Md,[A(e.$slots,"default",{},void 0,!0)])):j("",!0)])])}const Ad=R(Ed,[["render",Vd],["__scopeId","data-v-f3c41672"]]),Id={},Nd={xmlns:"http://www.w3.org/2000/svg","aria-hidden":"true",focusable:"false",viewBox:"0 0 24 24"},Od=Il('$ git push
+Username for 'https://github.com': \${{ GITHUB_USERNAME }}
+Password for 'https://andatoshiki@github.com': \${{ GITHUB_PASSWORD }} # or GitHub personal access token
+remote: Invalid username or password.
+fatal: Authentication failed for 'https://github.com/andatoshiki/andatoshiki.git/'
+$ git push
+Username for 'https://github.com': \${{ GITHUB_USERNAME }}
+Password for 'https://andatoshiki@github.com': \${{ GITHUB_PASSWORD }} # or GitHub personal access token
+remote: Invalid username or password.
+fatal: Authentication failed for 'https://github.com/andatoshiki/andatoshiki.git/'
+git push to GitHub remote branch failed via https protocol
If you enabled two-factor authentication in your GitHub account you won't be able to push via HTTPS using your accounts password. Instead you need to generate a personal access token. This can be done in the application settings of your GitHub account. Using this token as your password should allow you to push to your remote repository via HTTPS. Use your username as usual.
You may also need to update the origin for your repository if it is set to HTTPS. Do this to switch to SSH:
$ git remote -v
+$ git remote set-url origin git@github.com:$USERNAME/$REPONAME.git
+$ git remote -v
+$ git remote set-url origin git@github.com:$USERNAME/$REPONAME.git
+GitHub username & password/access token mismatched due to prior temporary Git config setup â Reset Git global username & email config or in current repository
To set your global username/email configuration:
git config --global user.name "FIRST_NAME LAST_NAME"git config --global user.email "MY_NAME@example.com"To set repository-specific username/email configuration:
git config user.name "FIRST_NAME LAST_NAME"git config user.email "MY_NAME@example.com"cat .git/configValues of the number type are numeric values, normally written as follows,
144
+144
+Put this into a program, it will cause the number 144 to come into existence inside the computer, with the following bash script, 144 might looks like this in bits,
0100000001100010000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
+0100000001100010000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
+With the following bash script, 144 will be converted into binary values in integer form,
ip1=144 # defines a variable named ip1, with the value of 10
+echo "obase=2;$ip1" | bc # convert the value to binary via bc
+ip1=144 # defines a variable named ip1, with the value of 10
+echo "obase=2;$ip1" | bc # convert the value to binary via bc
+ip1 is assigned the value 144.echo command prints out the string "obase=2;144", where "obase=2;" is an argument for bc that tells it to output the result in base 2 (binary), and "10" is the decimal number we want to convert.echo command is piped (using the | character) to bc, which takes the input "obase=2;144" and interprets it as a command to convert the number 10 to binary.TIP
But the standard describes JavaScript numbers as 64-bit floating-point values, which indicates fractions and exponents are available.
Fractional numbers are written by using a dot,
9.81
+9.81
+For extreme huge or tiny numbers, we can also use "scientific" notion by adding an e, followed by the exponent of the number,
2.998e8
+2.998e8
+The main thing to do with numbers is arithmetic. Arithmetic operations such as addition or multiplication take two number values and produce a new number from them, the following is an example of calculation in JavaScript.
100 + 4 * 11
+100 + 4 * 11
+The + and * symbols are called operators.
+ apparently stands for addition while * stands for multiplication.This expression indicates the multiplication takes place first then the adding of 100 comes next as a regard to PEMDAS rules (Order of Operations).
But we can still overwrite the steps of operation using a parenthesis around the addition,
;(100 + 4) * 11
+;(100 + 4) * 11
+For subtraction, there is the - operator, and division can be done with /. When operators appear together without parentheses, they are applied is determined by the precedence of the operators.
1-2+1), they are applied left to right (refers to PEMDAS).WARNING
When is doubt, don't care about precedence, just add parentheses for order of operation.
There is one more arithmetic operator, which is the % percent sign used to represent the modulo operation. The term "X modulo Y" is defined as the remainder of dividing X by Y.
314 % 100 is 14, 10 % 3 is 1, and 144 % 12 is 0 because there are no remainders.+ and - has the same lowest precedence.* , / and % has the same medium precedence.() has the highest precedence, followed on with brackets.% refers to "modulo", in mathematical reading, we say "X modulo Y" is the remainder of X over Y.The next data type is the string. Its use is not as evident from its name as with numbers, it also fulfills a very basic role.
'Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.'
+'Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.'
+'Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.'
+'Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.'
+TIP
Both single and double quotes can be used to mark strings
Almost anything can be put between quotes, and JavaScript will make a string value out of it. But the followings are tricky to be put between quotes.
\\n to represent.\\t indicates a new tab being indented.Take the following string as an example,
'Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,\\n consectetur adipiscing elit.'
+'Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,\\n consectetur adipiscing elit.'
+The following will be the rendered output,
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
+consectetur adipiscing elit.
+Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
+consectetur adipiscing elit.
+WARNING
But the situations where we want a backslash in a string to just be a backslash instead of a special code. By using \\\\ would render the "just slash" to \\ on output, instead of a special character, as follows,
"A newline character is written like \\"\\\\n\\"."
+"A newline character is written like \\"\\\\n\\"."
+Strings cannot be divided, multiplied, or subtracted, unlike integers. But the + operator can be used on the. It concatenates (glues) the two strings together, the following example will produce the string "concatenate".
'con' + 'cat' + 'e' + 'nate'
+'con' + 'cat' + 'e' + 'nate'
+"" double quotation marks or '' single quotation marks.\\ backslash followed with a character are being introduced specially by the interpreter, such as \\n referred as newline, \\t referred as new tab. \\\\ double backslash will be rendered as a single \\.\\& symbols followed after slash will not contain its original function such as connecting, but will be rendered as & on output.From the example given in the prior section with a lot of backslashes, it might be hard to understand the concept on at what time the slash will be rendered and when it will be considered as a special character starter.
The example is given as,
"A newline character is written like \\"\\\\n\\"."
+"A newline character is written like \\"\\\\n\\"."
+The rendered output will be on print,
A newline character is written like "\\n".
+A newline character is written like "\\n".
+the backslash character (\\) is used as an escape character to indicate that the following character(s) should be treated specially. In this case, the "\\n" sequence is an escape sequence that represents a newline character. The backslash before the n character tells the JavaScript interpreter that it should treat the n as a special character and not just as the letter "n".
However, if we want to include an actual backslash character (\\), we will have to escape it by using to two backslashes \\\\, or else with one single slash the JavaScript interpreter will still determines it as an special operator, Thus \\\\ will print \\ on output.
But what about the quotation marks used within the quotation marks that wraps the string? Wouldn't JavaScript interpreter throw error?
In the given JavaScript string, the inner set of double quotation marks ("\\\\n") is escaped using a backslash (\\) character. This tells the JavaScript interpreter to treat the inner double quotation marks as a regular character instead of a string delimiter.
So when the string is rendered on output, the backslash character will be removed and the inner set of quotation marks will be displayed as a regular character. The rendered string will look like this,
'\\n'
+'\\n'
+The outer set of double quotation marks in the original string delimit the entire string and will be displayed as regular quotation marks.
`,37);function A(D,F,B,f,x,_){const n=p("Badge");return l(),o("div",null,[c,s("h2",d,[e("1-1-1: Numbers "),i(n,{type:"danger",text:"must know"}),e(),h]),u,m,y,b,g,C,v,w,k])}const E=t(r,[["render",A]]);export{T as __pageData,E as default}; diff --git a/assets/javascript_notes_1_1-1.md.59b97c74.lean.js b/assets/javascript_notes_1_1-1.md.59b97c74.lean.js new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d8695b60 --- /dev/null +++ b/assets/javascript_notes_1_1-1.md.59b97c74.lean.js @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +import{_ as t,o as l,c as o,a as s,b as e,e as i,d as a,r as p}from"./app.6caaf9fc.js";const T=JSON.parse('{"title":"1-1: Values","description":"Chapter 1-1 notes on values","frontmatter":{"title":"1-1: Values","description":"Chapter 1-1 notes on values"},"headers":[{"level":2,"title":"1-1-1: Numbers","slug":"_1-1-1-numbers","link":"#_1-1-1-numbers","children":[]},{"level":2,"title":"1-1-2: Arithmetic","slug":"_1-1-2-arithmetic","link":"#_1-1-2-arithmetic","children":[]},{"level":2,"title":"1-1-3: Strings","slug":"_1-1-3-strings","link":"#_1-1-3-strings","children":[{"level":3,"title":"1-1-3-FR: Further Reading","slug":"_1-1-3-fr-further-reading","link":"#_1-1-3-fr-further-reading","children":[]}]}],"relativePath":"javascript/notes/1/1-1.md","lastUpdated":1677686831000}'),r={name:"javascript/notes/1/1-1.md"},c=s("h1",{id:"_1-1-values",tabindex:"-1"},[e("1-1: Values "),s("a",{class:"header-anchor",href:"#_1-1-values","aria-hidden":"true"},"#")],-1),d={id:"_1-1-1-numbers",tabindex:"-1"},h=s("a",{class:"header-anchor",href:"#_1-1-1-numbers","aria-hidden":"true"},"#",-1),u=a("",4),m=s("p",null,[e("Not all whole numbers "),s("span",{class:"katex"},[s("span",{class:"katex-mathml"},[s("math",{xmlns:"http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"},[s("semantics",null,[s("mrow",null,[s("mn",null,"1"),s("msup",null,[s("mn",null,"0"),s("mn",null,"19")])]),s("annotation",{encoding:"application/x-tex"},"10^{19}")])])]),s("span",{class:"katex-html","aria-hidden":"true"},[s("span",{class:"base"},[s("span",{class:"strut",style:{height:"0.8141em"}}),s("span",{class:"mord"},"1"),s("span",{class:"mord"},[s("span",{class:"mord"},"0"),s("span",{class:"msupsub"},[s("span",{class:"vlist-t"},[s("span",{class:"vlist-r"},[s("span",{class:"vlist",style:{height:"0.8141em"}},[s("span",{style:{top:"-3.063em","margin-right":"0.05em"}},[s("span",{class:"pstrut",style:{height:"2.7em"}}),s("span",{class:"sizing reset-size6 size3 mtight"},[s("span",{class:"mord mtight"},[s("span",{class:"mord mtight"},"19")])])])])])])])])])])]),e(" fit in a JavaScript number. There are also negative numbers, so one of the bits has to be used to store the sign of the number.")],-1),y=s("ul",null,[s("li",null,"11 bits are used to store the position of the decimal dot within the number."),s("li",null,[e("52 bits, any whole number less than "),s("span",{class:"katex"},[s("span",{class:"katex-mathml"},[s("math",{xmlns:"http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"},[s("semantics",null,[s("mrow",null,[s("msup",null,[s("mn",null,"2"),s("mn",null,"52")])]),s("annotation",{encoding:"application/x-tex"},"2^{52}")])])]),s("span",{class:"katex-html","aria-hidden":"true"},[s("span",{class:"base"},[s("span",{class:"strut",style:{height:"0.8141em"}}),s("span",{class:"mord"},[s("span",{class:"mord"},"2"),s("span",{class:"msupsub"},[s("span",{class:"vlist-t"},[s("span",{class:"vlist-r"},[s("span",{class:"vlist",style:{height:"0.8141em"}},[s("span",{style:{top:"-3.063em","margin-right":"0.05em"}},[s("span",{class:"pstrut",style:{height:"2.7em"}}),s("span",{class:"sizing reset-size6 size3 mtight"},[s("span",{class:"mord mtight"},[s("span",{class:"mord mtight"},"52")])])])])])])])])])])]),e(", which is more than "),s("span",{class:"katex"},[s("span",{class:"katex-mathml"},[s("math",{xmlns:"http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"},[s("semantics",null,[s("mrow",null,[s("mn",null,"1"),s("msup",null,[s("mn",null,"0"),s("mn",null,"15")])]),s("annotation",{encoding:"application/x-tex"},"10^{15}")])])]),s("span",{class:"katex-html","aria-hidden":"true"},[s("span",{class:"base"},[s("span",{class:"strut",style:{height:"0.8141em"}}),s("span",{class:"mord"},"1"),s("span",{class:"mord"},[s("span",{class:"mord"},"0"),s("span",{class:"msupsub"},[s("span",{class:"vlist-t"},[s("span",{class:"vlist-r"},[s("span",{class:"vlist",style:{height:"0.8141em"}},[s("span",{style:{top:"-3.063em","margin-right":"0.05em"}},[s("span",{class:"pstrut",style:{height:"2.7em"}}),s("span",{class:"sizing reset-size6 size3 mtight"},[s("span",{class:"mord mtight"},[s("span",{class:"mord mtight"},"15")])])])])])])])])])])]),e(" will safely fit in a JavaScript number, numbers we are using stay well below that.")])],-1),b=a("",4),g=s("p",null,[e("This indicates "),s("span",{class:"katex"},[s("span",{class:"katex-mathml"},[s("math",{xmlns:"http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"},[s("semantics",null,[s("mrow",null,[s("mn",null,"2.998"),s("mo",null,"Ă"),s("mn",null,"1"),s("msup",null,[s("mn",null,"0"),s("mn",null,"8")]),s("mo",null,"="),s("mn",null,"29980000")]),s("annotation",{encoding:"application/x-tex"},"2.998 \\times 10^8 = 29980000")])])]),s("span",{class:"katex-html","aria-hidden":"true"},[s("span",{class:"base"},[s("span",{class:"strut",style:{height:"0.7278em","vertical-align":"-0.0833em"}}),s("span",{class:"mord"},"2.998"),s("span",{class:"mspace",style:{"margin-right":"0.2222em"}}),s("span",{class:"mbin"},"Ă"),s("span",{class:"mspace",style:{"margin-right":"0.2222em"}})]),s("span",{class:"base"},[s("span",{class:"strut",style:{height:"0.8141em"}}),s("span",{class:"mord"},"1"),s("span",{class:"mord"},[s("span",{class:"mord"},"0"),s("span",{class:"msupsub"},[s("span",{class:"vlist-t"},[s("span",{class:"vlist-r"},[s("span",{class:"vlist",style:{height:"0.8141em"}},[s("span",{style:{top:"-3.063em","margin-right":"0.05em"}},[s("span",{class:"pstrut",style:{height:"2.7em"}}),s("span",{class:"sizing reset-size6 size3 mtight"},[s("span",{class:"mord 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[x] Finish three hero action blocks with keywords and its corresponded descriptions.
[ ] Finish my learning platform section using SVGs of different online academies from simple icons.
Descriptions
Icon in SVG format
Platform name
Linkable SVG icon/button
nav.ts.<head> tag documentation or guide by joshbuchea/HEAD.In the late 1800s, immigrants from Roseto Valfortore, Italy, came to Pennsylvania to work in the slate quarry near the town of Bangor. The settlers established a new community, named after their old one: Roseto. They built schools, a park, small shops, and more than a dozen factories. They kept to themselves and did not interact much with the predominantly German and English populations of the towns around them.
In the 1950s, a local doctor told Stewart Wolf, a medical researcher, that hardly anyone in Roseto under age sixty-five had heart disease. Wolf was curious. He did blood draws and EKG scans, and he analyzed physiciansâ records and death certificates. Wolf was amazed that almost no one under fifty-five showed any signs of heart disease, which at the time was Americaâs leading cause of death in men under sixty-five. Wolf enlisted the help of John Bruhn, a sociologist. They found that there was no suicide, alcoholism, or drug addiction in Roseto: everyone seemed to be dying of old age. According to Gladwell, Roseto was an outlier.
Wolf was forced to rule out diet and lifestyle as explanations, because the Rosetans had poor eating habits, smoked heavily, and were obese. He ruled out genetics after determining that Rosetansâ relatives in other parts of the country were not in comparably good health. Wolf eventually decided that what made Rosetoâs inhabitants so healthy was the town itselfâits culture and social structure. Many homes contained three generations living together, and with a population of just two thousand people, there were twenty-two separate civic organizations.
Wolf and Bruhn were met with a great deal of skepticism. They had to work hard to convince the medical establishment that the values of where we live and the people around us have a significant impact on who we are. Gladwell wants Outliers to do for our understanding of success what Wolf did for our understanding of health.
Gladwell describes a game between two teams in the Canadian Hockey League, the most competitive junior hockey league in the world. Starting at a very young age, players are regularly assessed for talent, so that the best can be separated out and prepared for the next level. The system is designed to be a meritocracy.
Gladwell wants to show that circumstances matter just as much for success as work ethic or intelligence. People often ask about the lifestyle, intelligence, or special talents of successful individuals, but not enough people ask when and where a person grew up. Gladwell likens people to trees: we all know that the tallest trees received the most sunlight, had nutrient-rich soil, and were lucky enough to avoid lumberjacks. He suggests that we study the environmental and social influences that make people successful.
In the 1980s, Canadian psychologist Roger Barnsley observed that on elite Canadian hockey teams, whether youth league or NHL, a disproportionate number of players have birthdays in the first three months of the year.
The explanation for the distribution of birthdays is simple: the cutoff date for an individualâs league assignment is January 1. A player born on January 2 will be 12 months older than one born at the end of December. At the age of nine or ten, this often translates into a huge difference in size, coordination, and maturity. By age ten, coaches regularly pick the oldest and largest potential players for the more competitive ârep squads,â where the players will receive better coaching, have more practice time, and play many more games. By thirteen or fourteen, all of the extra experience and coaching will have actually made the players better, and they will be selected for the more competitive league(s). The same thing happens in American youth baseball and European soccer, but with different cutoff dates.
The phenomenon is also observable in education. Economists Kelly Bedard and Elizabeth Dhuey found that on math and science tests, the older children in fourth grade regularly score better than the youngest children. This can affect whether a child qualifies for a gifted program. When Bedard and Dhuey extended their analysis to four-year colleges, they found that the students who belonged to the relatively youngest group were underrepresented by more than 10 percent.
The top-level hockey players were given opportunities they neither deserved nor earned. Sociologist Robert Merton called this the âMatthew Effect,â after the verse in the Gospel of Matthew:
âFor unto everyone that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance. But from that hath not shall be taken away even that which he hath.â
The successful receive more resources: the best students receive the best teaching, the richest citizens get the biggest tax breaks, the largest kids get the best coaching. Sociologists call this âaccumulative advantage.â Gladwell points out that cutoff dates exclude nearly half of the potential athletes from a population. Junior hockey teams in the Czech Republic show the same unbalanced distribution of birthdays as in Canada. If Canada or the Czech Republic separated each of their youth leagues into two separate leagues, one for kids born in the first half of the year, and one for kids born in the second half of the year, they would have twice as many athletes available for their national teams. Similarly, schools could separate kindergarten classes into students born in the first, middle, and last four months of the year. The benefits would justify the added administrative work, but, writes Gladwell, the scheme would run afoul of societyâs need to believe that individual merit matters more than the rules society has created.
Gord Wasden, the father of one of the Canadian Hockey League boys from the first section, describes his son. Scott Wasden worked hard to get where he is, but he has also generally had the advantage of being big compared to others on his team. He was born on January 4.
Gladwell's thesis argues that that the idea of rugged, individual success is not accurate. Rather, the most successful person doesnât thrive without some environmental and social influence plus a dose of good fortune. Â After laying out the concepts of a meritocracy and suggesting that this is the way that hockey players advance in Canada, he immediately undercuts this idea. Gladwell uses the illustration of birthday distribution as an example of an invisible contributor to the success of hockey players. With a registration cutoff date of January 1, players born from January 2 through March 31 are older than teammates born later in the year. These older players are likely bigger, faster, more coordinated, and more mature. Since the older players are seen as more skilled, they get selected for more advanced leagues with more practice, more games, and higher-quality coaching. By the time these older players reach their early teens, the extra advantages gained from being judged better because of their birthday translate into being better players. Similarly, the age cutoff for school registrations often mistakes maturity for ability. As a result, the older children appear smarter, get put into advanced groups, and qualify for gifted programs. The birthdate bias carries through to college.
Advantages result in more advantages. Gladwell reinforces this idea with the âMatthew Effect,â which states that "success leads to more success." More simply: by being a little bit better, a hockey player will get opportunities that may result in the player becoming an outlier. Gladwell implies that the systems that determine success are not efficient. He asks readers to question the way we, as a society, think about success. He suggests that changing the systems in athletics and education would chip away at the myth of individual merit as the chief marker of success and help level the playing field. Gladwell's model for this phenomenon is hockey player Scott Wasden. By demonstrating that Scott had the passion, talent, and work ethic for the game, as well as the good luck to be born on January 4, Gladwell reasons that Wasden, like many others he will be profiling, benefit by being both good and lucky.
Reference
Bill Joy, a co-founder of Sun Microsystems, is one of the most influential computer programmers of all time. Joy attended the University of Michigan, thinking to become a biologist or mathematician, but he became obsessed with the Computer Center that opened during his freshman year. In 1975, he enrolled in graduate school at UC Berkeley. At both schools, Bill Joy spent much of his free time programming. After graduating from Berkeley, he founded Sun Microsystems, eventually rewriting the Java programming language. He would appear to be a good example of success based on individual merit.
If achievement is the combination of talent and preparation, how much does innate talent affect oneâs success? In the 1990s, a study at Berlinâs elite Academy of Music determined that, regardless of instrument, all of the world-class students had practiced more than 10,000 hours. They did not find anyone at the top level who spent less time, nor did they find anyone who spent that amount of time who was not successful. Neurologist Daniel Levitin states that, across many fields, world-class expertise is never accomplished in less than 10,000 hours. The law holds even for a prodigy like Mozart, who started composing at age six: he did not compose his first masterwork until he was twenty-one. The youth athletes from the previous chapter who made it to the professional level put in 10,000 hours of practice. And note: individuals cannot normally put in that much practice without help. Most people will need supportive parents, financial stability, and probably a special programâlike an all-star youth hockey team.
Bill Joy was certainly intelligent, having achieved a perfect score on the math portion of his Scholastic Aptitude Test. His opportunities, however, were extraordinary. Bill Joy happened to choose a college that had a time-sharing computer available, something that was exceedingly rare during the early 1970s. While most students had to pay for computer time, Bill Joy exploited a bug in the collegeâs system to gain unlimited access to the Computer Center, which was walking distance from where he lived. He was able to spend almost all of his free time programming, and when he went to Berkeley, he had a terminal at home, where he could program until he fell asleep at his keyboard. Bill Joy was able to accumulate 10,000 hours while in college.
The Beatles are another example of the 10,000-hours principle. In 1960, when they were still a high school rock band, they were given the chance to travel to Hamburg, Germany and play in various strip clubs. The Beatles were contracted to play for hours every night, seven nights a week, and thereby were forced to develop as musicians. After a year and a half, they had performed 270 nights. By 1964, when they first found commercial success, they had performed an estimated twelve hundred timesâmore than most band bands do in an entire career.
Born in Seattle to affluent parents, Bill Gates was sent to a private school for seventh grade. The schoolâs Motherâs Club funded the purchase of a time-sharing terminal connected to a mainframe computer in Seattle. As an eighth-grader, Gates was able to start programming. When the Motherâs Club could no longer pay for computing time, Gates was able to continue programming at Information Sciences, Inc. (ISI) through a connection he made with one of the school parents. After that, one of ISIâs founders recommended Gates for a programming project at the Bonneville Power station. Gates was able to leave high school during his senior year to program for the Bonneville Power station as an independent study project. By the time Bill Gates dropped out of Harvard, he was well past 10,000 hours of experience.
In a list of the seventy-five richest people in human history, going as far back as ancient Egypt and converting all wealth estimates into modern U.S. dollars, fourteen names are Americans born within nine years of one another (including John D. Rockefeller and J.P. Morgan). What accounts for the fact that a list that covers thousands of years should have 20 percent of its members so close together? The fourteen Americans happened to live during the 1860s and 1870s, when the American economy was undergoing a huge transformation: the expansion of the railroads and the creation of Wall Street. Gladwell argues that the fourteen names are so close in birth date because they were all the perfect age to seize the opportunities available.
Bill Joy and Bill Gates were also born at just the right time. In 1975, Popular Electronics ran a cover story about the Altair 8800, a $397 microcomputer kit. Someone born before 1954 would likely already have a job with IBM, working on mainframes. Someone born after 1956 would likely still be in high school. Most of the biggest pioneers in the modern computer industry, including Bill Gates, Bill Joy, Steve Jobs, and Eric Schmidt, were born in 1954 or 1955, as were Joyâs three fellow founders at Sun.
Gladwell introduces his controversial and widely disputed 10,000 hours rule. Simply put, the rule suggests that to master a skill, an individual needs to practice it for 10,000 hours. Gladwell argues that, like hockey, success in computing requires both skill and luck, rather than pure, simple, natural ability. Gladwell's example is situated at the University of Michigan, specifically the new computer center, in 1971. The story of Bill Joy undermines the idea of success as an inexplicable, miraculous accomplishment. Though Gladwell agrees Joy is bright and talented, Joy also lucks into several happy accidents that allow for increased access. These strokes of luck give Joy the opportunity to become a computer expert. Gladwell's use of a psychological study conducted at the Academy of Music in Berlin, Germany, in the early 1990s forms the crux of his argument in this chapter. However, critics have suggested that this study was flawed and that there is no incontrovertible evidence to suggest that doing anything for 10,000 hours guarantees mastery. Rather, practice is, as Gladwell points out elsewhere throughout the text, just one of the factors in success. However, he also correlates the familial and economic advantages necessary to reach 10,000 of practice time, reinforcing the larger thesis of the book.
Gladwell argues that the Beatles and Bill Gates are examples of his notion of time spent directly relating to mastery. While detailing how the Beatles reached the 10,000-hour threshold for mastery, Gladwell also highlights the lucky breaks they had in achieving success, like the connection that landed the band in Hamburgâs music scene. Additionally, while Gates has become something of an American folk hero, Gladwell argues that Gates did not reach his great achievements completely on his own. His wealthy family, his lucky interaction with a computer in 1968, and his college experience allowed him far greater access to opportunity. Without this combination of factors, along with his intelligence and drive, Gates would likely not have become a household name. Again, Gladwell reinforces the idea that success comes not only from being good, but from having no small amount of luck, whether that be time, money, or, in an echo of the hockey player example, birthdate.
Gladwell claims that one important factor of success is the year in which one is born. In terms of wealth, there are 14 Americans, born in a nine-year period of the 1800s, who are among the richest people in history. This suggests that there was some connection to when they were born and the opportunities available to them in terms of innovation and invention, as well as the position they were in to take advantage of the opportunities. Similarly, men born in the same era of Bill Gates were coming of age at the bleeding edge of technology. Proximity to social and technological change, as well as the wealth and connections to take advantage of it, put these men in an advantageous position. Being in the right place at the right time, Gladwell argues, has at least as much to do with success as one's inborn abilities.
Reference
Chris Langan appeared on the television trivia show 1 vs. 100 after being the subject of interviews and at least one documentary, due to his extremely high IQ. He had little difficulty in high school, got a perfect score on his SAT, and read through Principia Mathematica as a teenager. On 1 vs. 100, Langan cashed out with winnings of $250,000.
Shortly after World War I, Lewis Terman, creator of the widely used Stanford-Binet IQ test, became fascinated with child prodigies. In 1921, he identified exceptionally gifted 1,470 students who came to be known as the âTermites.â Terman kept track of them over the years, carefully cataloging their educational achievement, marriages, psychological health, and employment. Terman was sure that the Termites would be the future elite of the United States. The same confidence underlies the use of IQ-like tests, such as the SAT, to assess applicants at Ivy League schools and corporations such as Microsoft and Google. Gladwell states that Terman was wrong about the Termites, and if he had met Chris Langan as a teenager, he would have been wrong about him, too.
Gladwell gives two examplesâone easy and one much harderâof questions that use visual puzzles to test IQ, without requiring any language abilities or specific factual knowledge. The average human will score 100. Those scoring below 70 are considered mentally disabled, and those who are successful in graduate programs likely have an IQ of 115 or higher. According to Gladwell, however, above 120 IQ makes little or no difference to success. A similar point applies to basketball: height is certainly an advantage, but there is, at best, modest value in being six foot seven instead of six foot six. A basketball player just needs to be tall enough.
A list of the last twenty-five Americans to win a Nobel Prize in Medicine includes graduates of prestigious schools, such as Columbia, Harvard, and MIT, but also graduates of DePauw, Holy Cross, and Gettysburg College. Similarly, there have been American Nobel laureates in Chemistry from Harvard and MIT, but also from Notre Dame and the University of Illinois. Harvard might have more intelligent students, but many other colleges have students smart enough to win a Nobel.
At the University of Michigan law school, around 10 percent of students are racial minorities. Without affirmative action, there would be less than 3 percent. Looking at career performance after graduation, Michigan found no difference between white and minority graduates. Minority students come into law school with weaker academic credentials than their white counterparts, but they are above the threshold required to be just as successful.
Not all questions that test for intelligence have a single correct answer. A different sort of question might ask for a list of different uses for a brick, or a blanket. A question like this measures imagination and creativity. At a top British high school, one student lists more than ten uses, many of which are comical. Another student, a prodigy with one of the schoolâs highest IQs, lists just a few uses, all of which are practical. Compared to an IQ test, asking about different uses for a brick might be a better way to identify future Nobel Prize winners.
Termanâs error was using intelligence alone to choose his Termites. While some of the Termites had successful careers, an unexpectedly high went on to careers that even Terman didnât consider to be successful. The two students tested by Termanâs team who actually did go on to win Nobels were not selected as Termites: their IQs were too low. Terman eventually concluded that âintellect and achievement are far from perfectly correlated.â
Gladwell states that to understand Chris Langanâs prospects of becoming a âtrue outlier,â one must learn more about him.
Intelligence, Gladwell argues, does not equal success. He dedicates this chapter to the examination of geniuses. Comparing the young subjects of Lewis Terman to Chris Langan, Gladwell argues against Termanâs idea that genius is a key to societal advancement. Gladwell lists Langanâs early accomplishments as a shining example of Terman's idea, then swiftly undercuts expectations. Gladwell argues again that individuals do not succeed or fail solely on their own, but rather due to a constellation of factors, many of which are uncontrollable. Langan's early achievements would suggest great things and a continued path toward accomplishment, but Gladwell includes the anecdote of his game show appearance to undermine the notion that genius equals success. Using two questions from an IQ test, Gladwell introduces the idea of an IQ threshold to examine the the larger notion of intelligence and its limitations. Arguing that the measure of someoneâs intelligence is only helpful up to a point, Gladwell uses examples of schools that Nobel laureates attended for undergraduate studies. Some, he points out, are elite institutions; others are not. Additionally, he points to success among graduates of the law school at the University of Michigan. There was no quantifiable difference in success post-graduation between white and POC students, some of whom were admitted under affirmative action with slightly lower undergraduate grades and standardized test scores. Reasonably, then, the level of intelligence beyond a certain point is moot. All of the students were intelligent enough to graduate, and beyond that, he argues, their intelligence predicted nothing.
Elements other than intelligence must contribute to success. Gladwell expands on his notion of an intelligence threshold and examines these other factors through an example of a question on a divergence test. Using examples of two students at an elite British school, Gladwell shows that the divergence test has no right answers, but instead looks for answers that demonstrate uniqueness and creativity. Intelligence matters, but so does imagination, creativity, and outside-the-box thinking. Gladwell circles back to Terman, reinforcing that the error when choosing his Termites was a focus on intelligence alone. He once again turns his attention to Chris Langan, foreshadowing that Langanâs story did not follow a direct line to achievement. Intelligence alone does not offer a certain path to success.
Reference
Chris Langanâs mother had four children, all from different fathers. Her first husband died in Mexico, the second was murdered, the third committed suicide, and the fourth was an abusive alcoholic. Langan says he has never met someone who grew up as impoverished as he and his brothers did. Attending Reed College, in Oregon, on a scholarship, he felt as though he did not belong with the rest of the students. When his mother neglected to fill out the financial aid forms, he lost his scholarship and dropped out. According to Langan, the school just did not care about their students. Later, Langan attended Montana State University in Bozeman but he dropped out when a dean refused Langanâs request to adjust his class schedule because of car trouble. He still has intellectual interests and has been working on a treatise called the âCognitive Theoretic Model of the Universe.â When asked if, hypothetically, he would take a position at Harvard, he acknowledges the benefit of an environment with so much intellectual energy, but he worries about a lack of intellectual freedom.
Gladwell points out the oddity of Langanâs experiences. Most colleges, especially small ones, try to accommodate student needs. Smart people take positions at places like Harvard instead of in the private sector precisely for the added intellectual freedom. Gladwell contrasts Langanâs story with Robert Oppenheimerâs. While at Cambridge, Oppenheimer became frustrated with his tutor and tried to poison him. After negotiations with the school administration, Oppenheimer was put on probation and assigned to a psychiatrist. Whereas Langan dropped out after his mother failed to fill out paperwork, Oppenheimer managed to stay in college after trying to kill someone. Later, Oppenheimer convinced General Leslie Groves to make Oppenheimer the scientific director of the Manhattan Project. Oppenheimer had the ability to persuade people, where Langan did not.
Psychologist Robert Sternberg calls the ability to persuade someone âpractical intelligence.â It involves knowing what to say, how to say it, and when. It requires an ability to read situations. Individuals can have either practical or analytical intelligence, or in the case of Oppenheimer, both. To understand where one obtains practical intelligence, Gladwell refers to a study conducted by Annette Lareau.
Lareau observed parenting strategies in both Black and white families from different socioeconomic strata. She found two distinct strategies: âconcerted cultivationâ and âaccomplishment of natural growth.â Concerted cultivation, most common in middle-class and wealthier families, is defined by parentsâ active promotion of their childrenâs talents and interests. Accomplishment of natural growth, most common in working-class or impoverished families, is defined by parentsâ lack of interest or interaction in their childrenâs free time. Concerted cultivation, writes Gladwell, encourages children to seek opportunities for growth and to advocate for themselves. Accomplishment of natural growth leaves children unprepared to shape their environment for their own benefit. Concerted cultivation fosters an attitude better suited for success in the modern world.
Oppenheimer was raised by affluent parents who sent him to a progressive private school and took an active interest in his hobbies.
By contrast, Chris Langanâs brother Mark states that as children, they learned to resent authority. Mark, too, was unable to obtain financial aid, because he had no knowledge of how the system worked. If Chris Langan had been raised in a family that valued education, he probably would have had more success.
Once the Termites reached working adulthood, Terman grouped 730 of the males into three categories, based on their levels of success. The top 20 percent were upper-class professionals, while the bottom 20 percent had low-paying jobs or were unemployed. After analyzing the differences between the groups, Terman found that the bottom 20 percent came almost entirely from the lowest social and economic classes. What they lacked was âa community around them that prepared them properly for the world.â
Chris Langan lives on a horse farm in Missouri, where he still writes. He is happily married and continues to read physics and philosophy. While he has spent decades on his writing, almost none of it has ever been published. Langan admits he has not tried to contact publishers or found an agentâand does not plan to. Chris Langan did not have the support necessary to meet success. Gladwell points that no one ever makes it alone, regardless of if they are successful musicians, athletes, tech billionaires, or geniuses.
Family background plays a crucial role in an individualâs success. While a genius like Chris Langan should thrive on a college campus, he drops out. Langan doesnât struggle with academics, but with paperwork, procedures, and environment. Gladwellâs characterization of Langan almost makes him seem like two separate characters: a confident, genius game show contestant versus a child from a poor and troubled family. Langan may be a true outlier in the sense that he doesnât seem to fit in academia or the working-class world. Â Langanâs story is ironic. His brilliant mind should propel him to success. However, his story also perfectly proves Gladwellâs point that brainpower alone does not lead to success. The author delves deeper into the irony of Langanâs situation by comparing him to Robert Oppenheimer, who worked on the nuclear bomb during World War II. Like Langan, Oppenheimer possesses great intelligence. Unlike Langan, Oppenheimer has an understanding that allows him to navigate the world effectively. Oppenheimer knows how to combat challenges, where Langan gets bested by a financial aid problem and class schedule. Oppenheimerâs family background gave him the confidence to deal with authority while Langanâs upbringing created a distrust of authority. Without a family background that encourages success, intelligence is not enough.
Contrast & Comparison
Oppenheimerâs family background gave him the confidence to deal with authority while Langanâs upbringing created a distrust of authority.
The power of persuasion is an important factor that drives success. Gladwell notes that the power of persuasion is practical intelligence. He contrasts practical intelligence with analytical ability, noting that just because a person is smart does not mean they have practical intelligence. These two types of knowledge are not necessarily coeval. He reinforces this point with a return to the comparison of Langan and Oppenheimer. Both men are exceedingly intelligent, but Langan lacks the social savvy of practical intelligence. Gladwell suggests that individuals gain practical intelligence skills from their families, discussing a study by sociologist Annette Lareau to prove his point. Children from wealthier families learn how to interact with society in a way that drives achievement. Successful people have the power of persuasion and can convince others to see things from their point of view.
Success, then, depends on more than individual effort. Gladwell builds this argument by detailing the differences between Oppenheimerâs upbringing and Langanâs. Oppenheimer lived in an upper-class neighborhood with myriad advantages. He learned how to negotiate and stand up for himself. Langanâs family moved from place to place, struggling for jobs, money, food, and clothes, and Langan learned that he couldnât rely on others. Gladwell's consideration of the Termites' success or struggles as adults supports his assertion that success is more than an individual effort; Gladwell states, âIn the end, only one thing mattered: family background.â Termanâs findings and Gladwellâs conclusion do not mean that talented individuals from lower social and economic classes cannot have successful futures. To succeed, everyone needs help along the way, if not from family, then from a supportive community. Individuals do not achieve success solely on their own.
Reference
$ git push
+Username for 'https://github.com': ${{ GITHUB_USERNAME }}
+Password for 'https://andatoshiki@github.com': ${{ GITHUB_PASSWORD }} # or GitHub personal access token
+remote: Invalid username or password.
+fatal: Authentication failed for 'https://github.com/andatoshiki/andatoshiki.git/'
+$ git push
+Username for 'https://github.com': ${{ GITHUB_USERNAME }}
+Password for 'https://andatoshiki@github.com': ${{ GITHUB_PASSWORD }} # or GitHub personal access token
+remote: Invalid username or password.
+fatal: Authentication failed for 'https://github.com/andatoshiki/andatoshiki.git/'
+git push to GitHub remote branch failed via https protocol
If you enabled two-factor authentication in your GitHub account you won't be able to push via HTTPS using your accounts password. Instead you need to generate a personal access token. This can be done in the application settings of your GitHub account. Using this token as your password should allow you to push to your remote repository via HTTPS. Use your username as usual.
You may also need to update the origin for your repository if it is set to HTTPS. Do this to switch to SSH:
$ git remote -v
+$ git remote set-url origin git@github.com:$USERNAME/$REPONAME.git
+$ git remote -v
+$ git remote set-url origin git@github.com:$USERNAME/$REPONAME.git
+GitHub username & password/access token mismatched due to prior temporary Git config setup â Reset Git global username & email config or in current repository
To set your global username/email configuration:
git config --global user.name "FIRST_NAME LAST_NAME"git config --global user.email "MY_NAME@example.com"To set repository-specific username/email configuration:
git config user.name "FIRST_NAME LAST_NAME"git config user.email "MY_NAME@example.com"cat .git/configResearch & Produce
đšâđ» Eternal & digital knowledge base for content craetion and notes management.
Tempus Fugit, which means "time flies" in Latin, is a phrase that highlights the fact that every person has the same 24 hours per day to learn. However, this time is never enough to learn everything. That's why recording knowledge for review is essential.
Carpe Diem, take it slow, seize the day and savor its moments. Enjoy a cup of coffee while playing blues on a 1980s-style CD player. Turn off the lights, close the curtains, and let the small lamp illuminate the space. The time is yours, relish the day, and unleash the productivity while learning.
An epiphany, derived from the Latin word "epiphania," is a moment of sudden and brilliant realization or insight. These moments of clarity and inspiration are precious and should be treated as such; to ensure that we don't forget these valuable ideas.
Values of the number type are numeric values, normally written as follows,
144
+144
+Put this into a program, it will cause the number 144 to come into existence inside the computer, with the following bash script, 144 might looks like this in bits,
0100000001100010000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
+0100000001100010000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
+With the following bash script, 144 will be converted into binary values in integer form,
ip1=144 # defines a variable named ip1, with the value of 10
+echo "obase=2;$ip1" | bc # convert the value to binary via bc
+ip1=144 # defines a variable named ip1, with the value of 10
+echo "obase=2;$ip1" | bc # convert the value to binary via bc
+ip1 is assigned the value 144.echo command prints out the string "obase=2;144", where "obase=2;" is an argument for bc that tells it to output the result in base 2 (binary), and "10" is the decimal number we want to convert.echo command is piped (using the | character) to bc, which takes the input "obase=2;144" and interprets it as a command to convert the number 10 to binary.TIP
But the standard describes JavaScript numbers as 64-bit floating-point values, which indicates fractions and exponents are available.
Not all whole numbers fit in a JavaScript number. There are also negative numbers, so one of the bits has to be used to store the sign of the number.
Fractional numbers are written by using a dot,
9.81
+9.81
+For extreme huge or tiny numbers, we can also use "scientific" notion by adding an e, followed by the exponent of the number,
2.998e8
+2.998e8
+This indicates .
Calculations with whole numbers (referred as integers) that fits into 52 bits are guaranteed to be always precise, but calculation with fraction numbers are generally not.
The main thing to do with numbers is arithmetic. Arithmetic operations such as addition or multiplication take two number values and produce a new number from them, the following is an example of calculation in JavaScript.
100 + 4 * 11
+100 + 4 * 11
+The + and * symbols are called operators.
+ apparently stands for addition while * stands for multiplication.This expression indicates the multiplication takes place first then the adding of 100 comes next as a regard to PEMDAS rules (Order of Operations).
But we can still overwrite the steps of operation using a parenthesis around the addition,
;(100 + 4) * 11
+;(100 + 4) * 11
+For subtraction, there is the - operator, and division can be done with /. When operators appear together without parentheses, they are applied is determined by the precedence of the operators.
1-2+1), they are applied left to right (refers to PEMDAS).WARNING
When is doubt, don't care about precedence, just add parentheses for order of operation.
There is one more arithmetic operator, which is the % percent sign used to represent the modulo operation. The term "X modulo Y" is defined as the remainder of dividing X by Y.
314 % 100 is 14, 10 % 3 is 1, and 144 % 12 is 0 because there are no remainders.+ and - has the same lowest precedence.* , / and % has the same medium precedence.() has the highest precedence, followed on with brackets.% refers to "modulo", in mathematical reading, we say "X modulo Y" is the remainder of X over Y.The next data type is the string. Its use is not as evident from its name as with numbers, it also fulfills a very basic role.
'Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.'
+'Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.'
+'Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.'
+'Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.'
+TIP
Both single and double quotes can be used to mark strings
Almost anything can be put between quotes, and JavaScript will make a string value out of it. But the followings are tricky to be put between quotes.
\n to represent.\t indicates a new tab being indented.Take the following string as an example,
'Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,\n consectetur adipiscing elit.'
+'Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,\n consectetur adipiscing elit.'
+The following will be the rendered output,
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
+consectetur adipiscing elit.
+Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
+consectetur adipiscing elit.
+WARNING
But the situations where we want a backslash in a string to just be a backslash instead of a special code. By using \\ would render the "just slash" to \ on output, instead of a special character, as follows,
"A newline character is written like \"\\n\"."
+"A newline character is written like \"\\n\"."
+Strings cannot be divided, multiplied, or subtracted, unlike integers. But the + operator can be used on the. It concatenates (glues) the two strings together, the following example will produce the string "concatenate".
'con' + 'cat' + 'e' + 'nate'
+'con' + 'cat' + 'e' + 'nate'
+"" double quotation marks or '' single quotation marks.\ backslash followed with a character are being introduced specially by the interpreter, such as \n referred as newline, \t referred as new tab. \\ double backslash will be rendered as a single \.\& symbols followed after slash will not contain its original function such as connecting, but will be rendered as & on output.From the example given in the prior section with a lot of backslashes, it might be hard to understand the concept on at what time the slash will be rendered and when it will be considered as a special character starter.
The example is given as,
"A newline character is written like \"\\n\"."
+"A newline character is written like \"\\n\"."
+The rendered output will be on print,
A newline character is written like "\n".
+A newline character is written like "\n".
+the backslash character (\) is used as an escape character to indicate that the following character(s) should be treated specially. In this case, the "\n" sequence is an escape sequence that represents a newline character. The backslash before the n character tells the JavaScript interpreter that it should treat the n as a special character and not just as the letter "n".
However, if we want to include an actual backslash character (\), we will have to escape it by using to two backslashes \\, or else with one single slash the JavaScript interpreter will still determines it as an special operator, Thus \\ will print \ on output.
But what about the quotation marks used within the quotation marks that wraps the string? Wouldn't JavaScript interpreter throw error?
In the given JavaScript string, the inner set of double quotation marks ("\\n") is escaped using a backslash (\) character. This tells the JavaScript interpreter to treat the inner double quotation marks as a regular character instead of a string delimiter.
So when the string is rendered on output, the backslash character will be removed and the inner set of quotation marks will be displayed as a regular character. The rendered string will look like this,
'\n'
+'\n'
+The outer set of double quotation marks in the original string delimit the entire string and will be displayed as regular quotation marks.
Source: ChatGPT CA (Code Analysis)
[x] Finish three hero action blocks with keywords and its corresponded descriptions.
[ ] Finish my learning platform section using SVGs of different online academies from simple icons.
Descriptions
Icon in SVG format
Platform name
Linkable SVG icon/button
nav.ts.<head> tag documentation or guide by joshbuchea/HEAD.In the late 1800s, immigrants from Roseto Valfortore, Italy, came to Pennsylvania to work in the slate quarry near the town of Bangor. The settlers established a new community, named after their old one: Roseto. They built schools, a park, small shops, and more than a dozen factories. They kept to themselves and did not interact much with the predominantly German and English populations of the towns around them.
In the 1950s, a local doctor told Stewart Wolf, a medical researcher, that hardly anyone in Roseto under age sixty-five had heart disease. Wolf was curious. He did blood draws and EKG scans, and he analyzed physiciansâ records and death certificates. Wolf was amazed that almost no one under fifty-five showed any signs of heart disease, which at the time was Americaâs leading cause of death in men under sixty-five. Wolf enlisted the help of John Bruhn, a sociologist. They found that there was no suicide, alcoholism, or drug addiction in Roseto: everyone seemed to be dying of old age. According to Gladwell, Roseto was an outlier.
Wolf was forced to rule out diet and lifestyle as explanations, because the Rosetans had poor eating habits, smoked heavily, and were obese. He ruled out genetics after determining that Rosetansâ relatives in other parts of the country were not in comparably good health. Wolf eventually decided that what made Rosetoâs inhabitants so healthy was the town itselfâits culture and social structure. Many homes contained three generations living together, and with a population of just two thousand people, there were twenty-two separate civic organizations.
Wolf and Bruhn were met with a great deal of skepticism. They had to work hard to convince the medical establishment that the values of where we live and the people around us have a significant impact on who we are. Gladwell wants Outliers to do for our understanding of success what Wolf did for our understanding of health.
Gladwell describes a game between two teams in the Canadian Hockey League, the most competitive junior hockey league in the world. Starting at a very young age, players are regularly assessed for talent, so that the best can be separated out and prepared for the next level. The system is designed to be a meritocracy.
Gladwell wants to show that circumstances matter just as much for success as work ethic or intelligence. People often ask about the lifestyle, intelligence, or special talents of successful individuals, but not enough people ask when and where a person grew up. Gladwell likens people to trees: we all know that the tallest trees received the most sunlight, had nutrient-rich soil, and were lucky enough to avoid lumberjacks. He suggests that we study the environmental and social influences that make people successful.
In the 1980s, Canadian psychologist Roger Barnsley observed that on elite Canadian hockey teams, whether youth league or NHL, a disproportionate number of players have birthdays in the first three months of the year.
The explanation for the distribution of birthdays is simple: the cutoff date for an individualâs league assignment is January 1. A player born on January 2 will be 12 months older than one born at the end of December. At the age of nine or ten, this often translates into a huge difference in size, coordination, and maturity. By age ten, coaches regularly pick the oldest and largest potential players for the more competitive ârep squads,â where the players will receive better coaching, have more practice time, and play many more games. By thirteen or fourteen, all of the extra experience and coaching will have actually made the players better, and they will be selected for the more competitive league(s). The same thing happens in American youth baseball and European soccer, but with different cutoff dates.
The phenomenon is also observable in education. Economists Kelly Bedard and Elizabeth Dhuey found that on math and science tests, the older children in fourth grade regularly score better than the youngest children. This can affect whether a child qualifies for a gifted program. When Bedard and Dhuey extended their analysis to four-year colleges, they found that the students who belonged to the relatively youngest group were underrepresented by more than 10 percent.
The top-level hockey players were given opportunities they neither deserved nor earned. Sociologist Robert Merton called this the âMatthew Effect,â after the verse in the Gospel of Matthew:
âFor unto everyone that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance. But from that hath not shall be taken away even that which he hath.â
The successful receive more resources: the best students receive the best teaching, the richest citizens get the biggest tax breaks, the largest kids get the best coaching. Sociologists call this âaccumulative advantage.â Gladwell points out that cutoff dates exclude nearly half of the potential athletes from a population. Junior hockey teams in the Czech Republic show the same unbalanced distribution of birthdays as in Canada. If Canada or the Czech Republic separated each of their youth leagues into two separate leagues, one for kids born in the first half of the year, and one for kids born in the second half of the year, they would have twice as many athletes available for their national teams. Similarly, schools could separate kindergarten classes into students born in the first, middle, and last four months of the year. The benefits would justify the added administrative work, but, writes Gladwell, the scheme would run afoul of societyâs need to believe that individual merit matters more than the rules society has created.
Gord Wasden, the father of one of the Canadian Hockey League boys from the first section, describes his son. Scott Wasden worked hard to get where he is, but he has also generally had the advantage of being big compared to others on his team. He was born on January 4.
Gladwell's thesis argues that that the idea of rugged, individual success is not accurate. Rather, the most successful person doesnât thrive without some environmental and social influence plus a dose of good fortune. Â After laying out the concepts of a meritocracy and suggesting that this is the way that hockey players advance in Canada, he immediately undercuts this idea. Gladwell uses the illustration of birthday distribution as an example of an invisible contributor to the success of hockey players. With a registration cutoff date of January 1, players born from January 2 through March 31 are older than teammates born later in the year. These older players are likely bigger, faster, more coordinated, and more mature. Since the older players are seen as more skilled, they get selected for more advanced leagues with more practice, more games, and higher-quality coaching. By the time these older players reach their early teens, the extra advantages gained from being judged better because of their birthday translate into being better players. Similarly, the age cutoff for school registrations often mistakes maturity for ability. As a result, the older children appear smarter, get put into advanced groups, and qualify for gifted programs. The birthdate bias carries through to college.
Advantages result in more advantages. Gladwell reinforces this idea with the âMatthew Effect,â which states that "success leads to more success." More simply: by being a little bit better, a hockey player will get opportunities that may result in the player becoming an outlier. Gladwell implies that the systems that determine success are not efficient. He asks readers to question the way we, as a society, think about success. He suggests that changing the systems in athletics and education would chip away at the myth of individual merit as the chief marker of success and help level the playing field. Gladwell's model for this phenomenon is hockey player Scott Wasden. By demonstrating that Scott had the passion, talent, and work ethic for the game, as well as the good luck to be born on January 4, Gladwell reasons that Wasden, like many others he will be profiling, benefit by being both good and lucky.
Reference
Bill Joy, a co-founder of Sun Microsystems, is one of the most influential computer programmers of all time. Joy attended the University of Michigan, thinking to become a biologist or mathematician, but he became obsessed with the Computer Center that opened during his freshman year. In 1975, he enrolled in graduate school at UC Berkeley. At both schools, Bill Joy spent much of his free time programming. After graduating from Berkeley, he founded Sun Microsystems, eventually rewriting the Java programming language. He would appear to be a good example of success based on individual merit.
If achievement is the combination of talent and preparation, how much does innate talent affect oneâs success? In the 1990s, a study at Berlinâs elite Academy of Music determined that, regardless of instrument, all of the world-class students had practiced more than 10,000 hours. They did not find anyone at the top level who spent less time, nor did they find anyone who spent that amount of time who was not successful. Neurologist Daniel Levitin states that, across many fields, world-class expertise is never accomplished in less than 10,000 hours. The law holds even for a prodigy like Mozart, who started composing at age six: he did not compose his first masterwork until he was twenty-one. The youth athletes from the previous chapter who made it to the professional level put in 10,000 hours of practice. And note: individuals cannot normally put in that much practice without help. Most people will need supportive parents, financial stability, and probably a special programâlike an all-star youth hockey team.
Bill Joy was certainly intelligent, having achieved a perfect score on the math portion of his Scholastic Aptitude Test. His opportunities, however, were extraordinary. Bill Joy happened to choose a college that had a time-sharing computer available, something that was exceedingly rare during the early 1970s. While most students had to pay for computer time, Bill Joy exploited a bug in the collegeâs system to gain unlimited access to the Computer Center, which was walking distance from where he lived. He was able to spend almost all of his free time programming, and when he went to Berkeley, he had a terminal at home, where he could program until he fell asleep at his keyboard. Bill Joy was able to accumulate 10,000 hours while in college.
The Beatles are another example of the 10,000-hours principle. In 1960, when they were still a high school rock band, they were given the chance to travel to Hamburg, Germany and play in various strip clubs. The Beatles were contracted to play for hours every night, seven nights a week, and thereby were forced to develop as musicians. After a year and a half, they had performed 270 nights. By 1964, when they first found commercial success, they had performed an estimated twelve hundred timesâmore than most band bands do in an entire career.
Born in Seattle to affluent parents, Bill Gates was sent to a private school for seventh grade. The schoolâs Motherâs Club funded the purchase of a time-sharing terminal connected to a mainframe computer in Seattle. As an eighth-grader, Gates was able to start programming. When the Motherâs Club could no longer pay for computing time, Gates was able to continue programming at Information Sciences, Inc. (ISI) through a connection he made with one of the school parents. After that, one of ISIâs founders recommended Gates for a programming project at the Bonneville Power station. Gates was able to leave high school during his senior year to program for the Bonneville Power station as an independent study project. By the time Bill Gates dropped out of Harvard, he was well past 10,000 hours of experience.
In a list of the seventy-five richest people in human history, going as far back as ancient Egypt and converting all wealth estimates into modern U.S. dollars, fourteen names are Americans born within nine years of one another (including John D. Rockefeller and J.P. Morgan). What accounts for the fact that a list that covers thousands of years should have 20 percent of its members so close together? The fourteen Americans happened to live during the 1860s and 1870s, when the American economy was undergoing a huge transformation: the expansion of the railroads and the creation of Wall Street. Gladwell argues that the fourteen names are so close in birth date because they were all the perfect age to seize the opportunities available.
Bill Joy and Bill Gates were also born at just the right time. In 1975, Popular Electronics ran a cover story about the Altair 8800, a $397 microcomputer kit. Someone born before 1954 would likely already have a job with IBM, working on mainframes. Someone born after 1956 would likely still be in high school. Most of the biggest pioneers in the modern computer industry, including Bill Gates, Bill Joy, Steve Jobs, and Eric Schmidt, were born in 1954 or 1955, as were Joyâs three fellow founders at Sun.
Gladwell introduces his controversial and widely disputed 10,000 hours rule. Simply put, the rule suggests that to master a skill, an individual needs to practice it for 10,000 hours. Gladwell argues that, like hockey, success in computing requires both skill and luck, rather than pure, simple, natural ability. Gladwell's example is situated at the University of Michigan, specifically the new computer center, in 1971. The story of Bill Joy undermines the idea of success as an inexplicable, miraculous accomplishment. Though Gladwell agrees Joy is bright and talented, Joy also lucks into several happy accidents that allow for increased access. These strokes of luck give Joy the opportunity to become a computer expert. Gladwell's use of a psychological study conducted at the Academy of Music in Berlin, Germany, in the early 1990s forms the crux of his argument in this chapter. However, critics have suggested that this study was flawed and that there is no incontrovertible evidence to suggest that doing anything for 10,000 hours guarantees mastery. Rather, practice is, as Gladwell points out elsewhere throughout the text, just one of the factors in success. However, he also correlates the familial and economic advantages necessary to reach 10,000 of practice time, reinforcing the larger thesis of the book.
Gladwell argues that the Beatles and Bill Gates are examples of his notion of time spent directly relating to mastery. While detailing how the Beatles reached the 10,000-hour threshold for mastery, Gladwell also highlights the lucky breaks they had in achieving success, like the connection that landed the band in Hamburgâs music scene. Additionally, while Gates has become something of an American folk hero, Gladwell argues that Gates did not reach his great achievements completely on his own. His wealthy family, his lucky interaction with a computer in 1968, and his college experience allowed him far greater access to opportunity. Without this combination of factors, along with his intelligence and drive, Gates would likely not have become a household name. Again, Gladwell reinforces the idea that success comes not only from being good, but from having no small amount of luck, whether that be time, money, or, in an echo of the hockey player example, birthdate.
Gladwell claims that one important factor of success is the year in which one is born. In terms of wealth, there are 14 Americans, born in a nine-year period of the 1800s, who are among the richest people in history. This suggests that there was some connection to when they were born and the opportunities available to them in terms of innovation and invention, as well as the position they were in to take advantage of the opportunities. Similarly, men born in the same era of Bill Gates were coming of age at the bleeding edge of technology. Proximity to social and technological change, as well as the wealth and connections to take advantage of it, put these men in an advantageous position. Being in the right place at the right time, Gladwell argues, has at least as much to do with success as one's inborn abilities.
Reference
Chris Langan appeared on the television trivia show 1 vs. 100 after being the subject of interviews and at least one documentary, due to his extremely high IQ. He had little difficulty in high school, got a perfect score on his SAT, and read through Principia Mathematica as a teenager. On 1 vs. 100, Langan cashed out with winnings of $250,000.
Shortly after World War I, Lewis Terman, creator of the widely used Stanford-Binet IQ test, became fascinated with child prodigies. In 1921, he identified exceptionally gifted 1,470 students who came to be known as the âTermites.â Terman kept track of them over the years, carefully cataloging their educational achievement, marriages, psychological health, and employment. Terman was sure that the Termites would be the future elite of the United States. The same confidence underlies the use of IQ-like tests, such as the SAT, to assess applicants at Ivy League schools and corporations such as Microsoft and Google. Gladwell states that Terman was wrong about the Termites, and if he had met Chris Langan as a teenager, he would have been wrong about him, too.
Gladwell gives two examplesâone easy and one much harderâof questions that use visual puzzles to test IQ, without requiring any language abilities or specific factual knowledge. The average human will score 100. Those scoring below 70 are considered mentally disabled, and those who are successful in graduate programs likely have an IQ of 115 or higher. According to Gladwell, however, above 120 IQ makes little or no difference to success. A similar point applies to basketball: height is certainly an advantage, but there is, at best, modest value in being six foot seven instead of six foot six. A basketball player just needs to be tall enough.
A list of the last twenty-five Americans to win a Nobel Prize in Medicine includes graduates of prestigious schools, such as Columbia, Harvard, and MIT, but also graduates of DePauw, Holy Cross, and Gettysburg College. Similarly, there have been American Nobel laureates in Chemistry from Harvard and MIT, but also from Notre Dame and the University of Illinois. Harvard might have more intelligent students, but many other colleges have students smart enough to win a Nobel.
At the University of Michigan law school, around 10 percent of students are racial minorities. Without affirmative action, there would be less than 3 percent. Looking at career performance after graduation, Michigan found no difference between white and minority graduates. Minority students come into law school with weaker academic credentials than their white counterparts, but they are above the threshold required to be just as successful.
Not all questions that test for intelligence have a single correct answer. A different sort of question might ask for a list of different uses for a brick, or a blanket. A question like this measures imagination and creativity. At a top British high school, one student lists more than ten uses, many of which are comical. Another student, a prodigy with one of the schoolâs highest IQs, lists just a few uses, all of which are practical. Compared to an IQ test, asking about different uses for a brick might be a better way to identify future Nobel Prize winners.
Termanâs error was using intelligence alone to choose his Termites. While some of the Termites had successful careers, an unexpectedly high went on to careers that even Terman didnât consider to be successful. The two students tested by Termanâs team who actually did go on to win Nobels were not selected as Termites: their IQs were too low. Terman eventually concluded that âintellect and achievement are far from perfectly correlated.â
Gladwell states that to understand Chris Langanâs prospects of becoming a âtrue outlier,â one must learn more about him.
Intelligence, Gladwell argues, does not equal success. He dedicates this chapter to the examination of geniuses. Comparing the young subjects of Lewis Terman to Chris Langan, Gladwell argues against Termanâs idea that genius is a key to societal advancement. Gladwell lists Langanâs early accomplishments as a shining example of Terman's idea, then swiftly undercuts expectations. Gladwell argues again that individuals do not succeed or fail solely on their own, but rather due to a constellation of factors, many of which are uncontrollable. Langan's early achievements would suggest great things and a continued path toward accomplishment, but Gladwell includes the anecdote of his game show appearance to undermine the notion that genius equals success. Using two questions from an IQ test, Gladwell introduces the idea of an IQ threshold to examine the the larger notion of intelligence and its limitations. Arguing that the measure of someoneâs intelligence is only helpful up to a point, Gladwell uses examples of schools that Nobel laureates attended for undergraduate studies. Some, he points out, are elite institutions; others are not. Additionally, he points to success among graduates of the law school at the University of Michigan. There was no quantifiable difference in success post-graduation between white and POC students, some of whom were admitted under affirmative action with slightly lower undergraduate grades and standardized test scores. Reasonably, then, the level of intelligence beyond a certain point is moot. All of the students were intelligent enough to graduate, and beyond that, he argues, their intelligence predicted nothing.
Elements other than intelligence must contribute to success. Gladwell expands on his notion of an intelligence threshold and examines these other factors through an example of a question on a divergence test. Using examples of two students at an elite British school, Gladwell shows that the divergence test has no right answers, but instead looks for answers that demonstrate uniqueness and creativity. Intelligence matters, but so does imagination, creativity, and outside-the-box thinking. Gladwell circles back to Terman, reinforcing that the error when choosing his Termites was a focus on intelligence alone. He once again turns his attention to Chris Langan, foreshadowing that Langanâs story did not follow a direct line to achievement. Intelligence alone does not offer a certain path to success.
Reference
Chris Langanâs mother had four children, all from different fathers. Her first husband died in Mexico, the second was murdered, the third committed suicide, and the fourth was an abusive alcoholic. Langan says he has never met someone who grew up as impoverished as he and his brothers did. Attending Reed College, in Oregon, on a scholarship, he felt as though he did not belong with the rest of the students. When his mother neglected to fill out the financial aid forms, he lost his scholarship and dropped out. According to Langan, the school just did not care about their students. Later, Langan attended Montana State University in Bozeman but he dropped out when a dean refused Langanâs request to adjust his class schedule because of car trouble. He still has intellectual interests and has been working on a treatise called the âCognitive Theoretic Model of the Universe.â When asked if, hypothetically, he would take a position at Harvard, he acknowledges the benefit of an environment with so much intellectual energy, but he worries about a lack of intellectual freedom.
Gladwell points out the oddity of Langanâs experiences. Most colleges, especially small ones, try to accommodate student needs. Smart people take positions at places like Harvard instead of in the private sector precisely for the added intellectual freedom. Gladwell contrasts Langanâs story with Robert Oppenheimerâs. While at Cambridge, Oppenheimer became frustrated with his tutor and tried to poison him. After negotiations with the school administration, Oppenheimer was put on probation and assigned to a psychiatrist. Whereas Langan dropped out after his mother failed to fill out paperwork, Oppenheimer managed to stay in college after trying to kill someone. Later, Oppenheimer convinced General Leslie Groves to make Oppenheimer the scientific director of the Manhattan Project. Oppenheimer had the ability to persuade people, where Langan did not.
Psychologist Robert Sternberg calls the ability to persuade someone âpractical intelligence.â It involves knowing what to say, how to say it, and when. It requires an ability to read situations. Individuals can have either practical or analytical intelligence, or in the case of Oppenheimer, both. To understand where one obtains practical intelligence, Gladwell refers to a study conducted by Annette Lareau.
Lareau observed parenting strategies in both Black and white families from different socioeconomic strata. She found two distinct strategies: âconcerted cultivationâ and âaccomplishment of natural growth.â Concerted cultivation, most common in middle-class and wealthier families, is defined by parentsâ active promotion of their childrenâs talents and interests. Accomplishment of natural growth, most common in working-class or impoverished families, is defined by parentsâ lack of interest or interaction in their childrenâs free time. Concerted cultivation, writes Gladwell, encourages children to seek opportunities for growth and to advocate for themselves. Accomplishment of natural growth leaves children unprepared to shape their environment for their own benefit. Concerted cultivation fosters an attitude better suited for success in the modern world.
Oppenheimer was raised by affluent parents who sent him to a progressive private school and took an active interest in his hobbies.
By contrast, Chris Langanâs brother Mark states that as children, they learned to resent authority. Mark, too, was unable to obtain financial aid, because he had no knowledge of how the system worked. If Chris Langan had been raised in a family that valued education, he probably would have had more success.
Once the Termites reached working adulthood, Terman grouped 730 of the males into three categories, based on their levels of success. The top 20 percent were upper-class professionals, while the bottom 20 percent had low-paying jobs or were unemployed. After analyzing the differences between the groups, Terman found that the bottom 20 percent came almost entirely from the lowest social and economic classes. What they lacked was âa community around them that prepared them properly for the world.â
Chris Langan lives on a horse farm in Missouri, where he still writes. He is happily married and continues to read physics and philosophy. While he has spent decades on his writing, almost none of it has ever been published. Langan admits he has not tried to contact publishers or found an agentâand does not plan to. Chris Langan did not have the support necessary to meet success. Gladwell points that no one ever makes it alone, regardless of if they are successful musicians, athletes, tech billionaires, or geniuses.
Family background plays a crucial role in an individualâs success. While a genius like Chris Langan should thrive on a college campus, he drops out. Langan doesnât struggle with academics, but with paperwork, procedures, and environment. Gladwellâs characterization of Langan almost makes him seem like two separate characters: a confident, genius game show contestant versus a child from a poor and troubled family. Langan may be a true outlier in the sense that he doesnât seem to fit in academia or the working-class world. Â Langanâs story is ironic. His brilliant mind should propel him to success. However, his story also perfectly proves Gladwellâs point that brainpower alone does not lead to success. The author delves deeper into the irony of Langanâs situation by comparing him to Robert Oppenheimer, who worked on the nuclear bomb during World War II. Like Langan, Oppenheimer possesses great intelligence. Unlike Langan, Oppenheimer has an understanding that allows him to navigate the world effectively. Oppenheimer knows how to combat challenges, where Langan gets bested by a financial aid problem and class schedule. Oppenheimerâs family background gave him the confidence to deal with authority while Langanâs upbringing created a distrust of authority. Without a family background that encourages success, intelligence is not enough.
Contrast & Comparison
Oppenheimerâs family background gave him the confidence to deal with authority while Langanâs upbringing created a distrust of authority.
The power of persuasion is an important factor that drives success. Gladwell notes that the power of persuasion is practical intelligence. He contrasts practical intelligence with analytical ability, noting that just because a person is smart does not mean they have practical intelligence. These two types of knowledge are not necessarily coeval. He reinforces this point with a return to the comparison of Langan and Oppenheimer. Both men are exceedingly intelligent, but Langan lacks the social savvy of practical intelligence. Gladwell suggests that individuals gain practical intelligence skills from their families, discussing a study by sociologist Annette Lareau to prove his point. Children from wealthier families learn how to interact with society in a way that drives achievement. Successful people have the power of persuasion and can convince others to see things from their point of view.
Success, then, depends on more than individual effort. Gladwell builds this argument by detailing the differences between Oppenheimerâs upbringing and Langanâs. Oppenheimer lived in an upper-class neighborhood with myriad advantages. He learned how to negotiate and stand up for himself. Langanâs family moved from place to place, struggling for jobs, money, food, and clothes, and Langan learned that he couldnât rely on others. Gladwell's consideration of the Termites' success or struggles as adults supports his assertion that success is more than an individual effort; Gladwell states, âIn the end, only one thing mattered: family background.â Termanâs findings and Gladwellâs conclusion do not mean that talented individuals from lower social and economic classes cannot have successful futures. To succeed, everyone needs help along the way, if not from family, then from a supportive community. Individuals do not achieve success solely on their own.
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